Vaccination is an evidence-based strategy that can prevent or ameliorate some infectious diseases, saving millions of people in the last century, and its importance was highlighted again during the recent SARS-CoV-2 epidemic. During this time, researchers attempted to have a profound knowledge of vaccine immunology to improve vaccines' immunogenicity, durability, efficacy, and effectiveness. However, immunosenescence, which is defined as the decline in immune function by aging, is a term that recently attracted attention in this field of research.

Immunosenescence is a process that can result in susceptibility to infection, cancer, and autoimmune diseases. Several studies showed that older adults and individuals with accelerated aging, such as those with Down syndrome, have a declined immune response to antigens; genetics, nutrition, physical activity, previous exposure to microorganisms such as cytomegalovirus, and sex are among the factors that affect the immunosenescence process. Therefore, it is important to investigate the associations between vaccination and immunosenescence and the factors affecting immune response in individuals with immunosenescence.

Importantly, older adults and individuals with accelerated aging are usually excluded from vaccination studies or clinical trials. Therefore, our knowledge about vaccination and immunosenescence mostly comes from scattered small observational studies.

In this collection, we want to include studies investigating topics related to vaccination and immunosenescence. We already know that chronic cytomegalovirus infection is associated with the process of immunosenescence; however, we need further investigation about other microorganisms, mechanisms, and the associated factors need to be investigated. The effects of vaccination on the immunosenescence process is also an important subject that lacks further investigation.

We welcome different article types, including original research, methods articles, protocols, technology reports, reviews, perspectives, hypothesis and theory articles, and opinion articles that focus on but are not limited to, the following sub-topics, including:

• Humoral and cellular immune response to vaccines in individuals with immunosenescence, including older adults and those with accelerated aging
• Role of chronic infections such as CMV infection on the immune response to vaccines in individuals with immunosenescence, including older adults.
• Immune cell function and immune response to vaccines in individuals with accelerated aging
• Strategies to tackle immunosenescence and improve immune response to vaccination
• The effect of vaccination on the immunosenescence process

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Frontiers in Immunology

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