Encouraging self-regulated learning: examining the feedback approaches and teaching strategies employed by English Home Language teachers

The additive approach to multilingualism followed in South African public schools complicate teaching and learning in English Home Language. Many non-native speaking learners underperform since they must learn in an unfamiliar language, which differs from theirs socially and culturally. Throughout the teaching and learning process, learners encounter diverse language challenges. Consequently, teachers play a crucial role in aiding learners to surmount these hurdles by offering both sufficient and effective feedback. Proficient feedback practices have the potential to bolster the self-regulation capabilities of non-native speakers and underperforming learners, thereby preparing them for a lifetime of learning. The aim of this study was to investigate the predominant types and levels of feedback utilized in the classrooms of intermediate phase teachers within English Home Language education, as well as how this feedback is employed to promote the development of learners’ self-regulated learning skills. The empirical study was approached by means of a qualitative research design in the form of an instrumental case study. Observations and individual, semi-structured interviews were used to collect data from 15 purposively selected teachers from five different schools in the Ennerdale region in Gauteng, South Africa. The findings indicate that while there is some promotion of self-regulated learning skills, discrepancies exist between participants’ perceptions of how their feedback practices foster these skills, as revealed in interview data, and their actual teaching methods. Participants predominantly employ traditional, transmission-based teaching approaches, demonstrating limited comprehension of the diverse self-regulated skills that could enhance academic achievement, particularly in English Home Language. Moreover, there is a deficiency in pedagogical knowledge regarding the application of these skills within their teaching practices. These findings suggest a misalignment between teachers’ perceptions of their feedback practices and the actual implementation of these practices in promoting self-regulated learning skills among students in English Home Language education. The predominance of traditional teaching approaches and limited understanding of self-regulated learning skills among teachers highlight potential barriers to the effective cultivation of these skills in the classroom. This misalignment is significant as it indicates a gap between teachers’ intentions and their instructional practices, which can hinder students’ ability to develop essential self-regulated learning skills necessary for academic success. Furthermore, the deficiency in pedagogical knowledge regarding the application of these skills underscores the need for targeted professional development initiatives to support teachers in integrating effective feedback practices that promote self-regulated learning. Overall, these findings underscore the importance of aligning teachers’ perceptions and practices with the promotion of self-regulated learning skills, particularly in the context of English Home Language education. Addressing these discrepancies through targeted interventions and professional development can ultimately enhance students’ academic achievement and overall learning outcomes.

1 Introduction

South African intermediate phase learners are performing below expectations, according to studies conducted in 2014 by the Southern and East African Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality 111 (SACMEQ 111) (2011) and the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS, 2016; Howie et al., 2017). The most recent PIRLS (2021) results exposed that the majority (81%) of South African Grade 4 learners cannot read for meaning in any language, including their home languages (Department of Basic Education, 2023).

A contributing factor to the substandard performance of Intermediate Phase learners are the language challenges that teachers and learners experience resulting from the increased linguistic diversity in many South African classrooms. In South Africa the Intermediate Phase consists of grades 4, 5 and 6. The language policy in South Africa follows an additive approach to multilingualism, whereby the first language is used as a foundation to acquire other languages (Department of Basic Education, 2002). The additive approach to multilingualism complicate teaching and learning in English Home Language, since many non-native speaking learners must learn in an unfamiliar language, which differs from theirs socially and culturally (Malebese, 2017). For example, English becomes the Language of learning and teaching (LoLT) of learners even though isiZulu or Sesotho is their home language. Due to a lack of exposure to the English language, many second language learners are thus struggling to understand the language as well as to communicate through it. The reason being that on a Home Language level, language proficiency provides basic interpersonal skills required in both social situations as well as cognitive academic skills, which is important for learning across the curriculum (Department of Basic Education, 2011, p. 8).

Cummins (2017) elucidates that Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency and Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills indicate that whereas learners typically need 5–10 years to progress intellectually in English, they can become conversationally fluent in the language in approximately 2 years. Learners encounter a range of linguistic obstacles during teaching and learning; thus, teachers must help them get past these obstacles by giving them sufficient constructive feedback. Through the provision of feedback, teachers can allow learners to reflect on mistakes, work towards improving their learning, and as a result, become self-regulated learners.

Self-regulated learning (SRL) is essential for learning and academic success since it establishes the foundation for motivation in all facets of life (Amri, 2024). Numerous empirical investigations have shown that learners who demonstrate SRL skills are generally more successful because they typically set greater academic goals and are more confident, resourceful, and persistent in performing academically (Zimmerman, 2015; Amri, 2024).

When learners utilise SRL skills, they become less reliant on teachers for guidance and support and can take greater control over their learning processes (Alvi and Gillies, 2020). Therefore, the exposure to and fostering of SRL skills by teachers is of vital importance in general and specifically in English Home Language. We agree with de Kleijn (2023) that teachers’ feedback practices and teaching and learning strategies to encourage SRL skills interlink with each other and hold a strong connection which can equip learners to take an active role in their learning to enable learners to monitor and improve their English Home Language proficiency in Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills as well as in their Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency.

There appears to be a scarcity of information in existing literature regarding feedback and SRL in South African schools, as most research on feedback practices was internationally conducted. Although there is some research, such as the study by Du Toit (2012) who focused on constructive feedback as a learning tool to enhance SRL and performance in higher education; Hermerda (2016) who focused on the effectiveness of feedback types and the connection with student performance; and Mabuuke et al. (2017) who focused on feedback and SRL in a problem-based learning environment, no previous studies regarding the feedback practices of intermediate phase teachers to develop SRL specifically in Ennerdale in the Gauteng education district, quintile 1 to 4 schools, could be found. To address the gap in the literature regarding feedback practices that encourage self-regulated learning (SRL) in English Home Language classes, this study aims to: (a) Explore intermediate-phase teachers’ perceptions of their feedback practices that promote SRL skills in their English Home Language classes. (b) Identify the specific SRL skills that intermediate phase teachers strive to foster to enhance English Home Language proficiency.

The following research questions guided the study: (a) What are intermediate-phase teachers’ perceptions of their feedback practices that encourage SRL skills in their English Home Language classes? and (b) Which SRL skills do they encourage to improve English Home Language proficiency?

In the next section, the theoretical conceptual framework of the study will be discussed.

2 Theoretical conceptual framework

The theoretical conceptual framework of this study includes Hattie and Timperley’s (2007) model of feedback, the types of feedback as an important part of the assessment, and Zimmerman and Moylan’s (2009) model of self-regulated learning which is rooted in the social cognitive theory of Bandura (1986). The foundation of the social cognitive theory’s view on SRL is that human functioning results in self-motivation through interaction, in classifications of joint interactions between the personal, environmental, and behavioral determinants (Zimmerman, 1989, 2000). We viewed the social cognitive theory perspective of SRL appropriately to explore participants’ feedback practices to encourage SRL. The personal determinants represent, particularly in this study, participants’ teacher training, and pedagogical knowledge of feedback and SRL, along with thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and other motivational forces that enable them to develop SRL skills through feedback in learners. The environment determinants in this study, include the home language of learners, the language of learning and teaching of the learners, and the parents of the learners, all of which contribute to the social and physical working environment of participants in this study. Behavioral determinants refer to participants’ teaching strategies, their choice of tasks, and their efforts to develop learners’ SRL skills through feedback in English Home Language classrooms in the intermediate phase (Manual, 2020).

2.1 Hattie and Timperley’s model of feedback

According to Hattie and Timperley (2007) the main purpose of feedback is to decrease inconsistencies between current understandings, performance, and a goal. Effective feedback has to answer three major questions asked by a teacher and/or by a learner: Where am I going? (What are the goals?); How am I going? (What progress is made toward the goal?); and Where to next? (What tasks need to be taken on to make better progress?) (Hattie and Timperley, 2007, p. 90). Together, the questions narrow the gap between where learners are and where they aim to be through enabling feedback.

Hattie and Timperley’s (2007) model differentiates between four levels of feedback: the level of task performance, the level of process of understanding how to do a task, the regulatory or metacognitive process level, and the self or personal level. Feedback on the task level provides immediate feedback on the correctness of the task errors made as well as instructions to acquire more, different, or correct information on a task (Hattie and Timperley, 2007). Feedback on the self-level seems more effective than task-related feedback because it expresses a more positive, personal evaluation and effect on the learners themselves which culminates in learners taking ownership and responsibility for their learning thus demonstrating self-regulated behavior. Feedback on the self-regulation level develops learners’ self-evaluation skills and their confidence to engage further in a task. Yang et al. (2022) investigated the effects of an SRL-based feedback practice on English-as-a-foreign-Language (EFL) learners’ writing performance and their use of SRL writing strategies in a tertiary context. For the intervention group, SRL-based feedback activities were implemented, and process-self-regulation feedback was provided, while the control group completed the same writing tasks but received conventional task-level feedback. The study’s primary conclusion is that EFL learners’ writing performance is much enhanced by SRL-based feedback practice. In particular, the control group received traditional task-level feedback; in contrast, the intervention group, which received SRL-based feedback activities and process-SR feedback, scored worse in the subcategories of vocabulary, organization, and content as well as overall writing scores. This shows that traditional feedback approaches are less effective in improving writing performance than SRL-based feedback, which supports the review of writing knowledge, application of cognitive strategies, and monitoring and regulation of learning.

2.2 Types of feedback

Svensäter and Rohlin (2023) distinguish between formative and summative assessment and feedback during learning processes. Other commonly used types of feedback described next are oral, written, evaluative, descriptive, peer, and self-feedback (State of New South Wales, Department of Education and Communities, 2015). Despite the advantages of feedback for both teachers and learners, Kanjee and Mthembu (2015) found that Foundation phase teachers, in their study, only had a partial understanding of how to use summative assessment to identify learning gaps, and no teacher demonstrated a sufficient grasp of formative assessment and feedback to use it effectively. Teachers relied solely on traditional questioning methods, seeking responses only from learners who raised their hands. Additionally, the authors found no evidence of descriptive written feedback in learners’ books. Instead, teachers’ written feedback primarily consisted of ticks, crosses, and short comments indicating work was well done or incompletes. In another study Kanjee (2020) reports that primary school teachers’ use of formative assessment forms constitutes mostly of oral feedback that primarily focuses on correcting learners’ work or addressing their questions about the assigned task. The most concerning finding from Kanjee (2020) is the extremely low prevalence of descriptive feedback and the predominance of evaluative and procedural feedback for both high and low-performing students. In practice, this suggests that most of the written feedback provided by the 96 teachers from 54 primary schools in Kanjee’s (2020) study did little to enhance learning or help learners take responsibility for their learning through feedback.

Panadero et al. (2019) assert that teachers should cultivate self-feedback skills in learners, enabling them to utilize feedback from their social learning environments. This, in turn, helps learners adjust their feedback and evaluation methods to enhance their learning processes and outcomes. These authors aver that teachers can help learners receive self-feedback by using scaffolding such as modeling, clearly defining criteria for evaluating learning activities, providing multiple examples of excellent work, and utilizing a range of instructional resources. Hattie and Timperley's (2007) model, along with the existing literature on types of feedback, guided the researchers in exploring the first aim of the study: understanding intermediate-phase teachers’ perceptions of their feedback practices that encourage SRL skills in their English Home Language classes.

2.3 Zimmerman and Moylan’s SRL model

Zimmerman (2013) explains that SRL refers to a “self-directive process through which learners transform their mental abilities into task-related academic skills.” There are three phases in Zimmerman and Moylan’s (2009) model, namely the forethought, volitional, and self-reflection phases. Each of the three phases involves processes and sub-processes representing the skills self-regulated learners need to demonstrate when they receive feedback. These processes and sub-processes in the three phases do not operate in silos but constantly influence each other in the demonstration of self-regulated behavior. Zimmerman and Moylan’s (2009) model illustrates the SRL skills exhibited by self-regulated learners. This model helped the researchers achieve the second research aim by identifying the specific SRL skills that intermediate-phase teachers aim to encourage to improve English Home Language proficiency.

Firstly, the forethought phase has two main processes, task analysis and self-motivational beliefs, which consist of two interlinked sub-processes goal-setting and strategic planning (Panadero and Alonso-Tapia, 2014). When faced with a novel task, self-regulated learners first examine it thoroughly from both a formal and content standpoint. They ask themselves, among other things, what knowledge and skills they need to finish the task successfully, how long they should spend on it, what resources they need, what task strategies to use, and if they will need assistance to finish it (Zimmerman, 2013). In the process of analyzing the task, they set clear, realistic, and achievable academic goals and plan strategically how they will adapt plans and strategies to adjust to their personal, behavioral, and environmental situations to attain those goals. Task analysis, goal setting, and strategic planning are influenced by the second main process, self-motivational beliefs (Zimmerman, 2002). Self-motivational beliefs entail learners’ intrinsic motivation to complete the task which is influenced by their self-efficacy beliefs, the task value and interest, the positive outcome expectations the task has, and their goal orientations or reasons for completing the task (Zimmerman, 1990). Learners who believe in their capabilities to complete a task successfully, who understand the value of a task, who have an interest in the task, who understand how completion of the task will be beneficial in the future, and who are motivated by mastery learning will put in the effort to analyze tasks, to set goals and to plan strategically. The opposite holds for learners with low self-motivational beliefs (Schunk et al., 2016).

The second phase in the model is the performance phase or volitional control phase, which entails all the actions self-regulated learners demonstrate while they are completing the tasks. The two main processes in this phase are self-control and self-observation. In the self-control phase, there are eight sub-processes namely task strategies; self-instruction; imagery; time management; environmental structuring; and help-seeking (Zimmerman, 2013; Panadero and Alonso-Tapia, 2014).

Self-observation involves motivational strategies like interest incentives and self-consequences. It means that learners carefully monitor and record their performance to determine whether they are making progress and achieving the expected learning outcomes. Self-monitoring, a type of self-observation, involves personally tracking cognitive performance (Panadero, 2017). For example, a learner might create a performance-tracking schedule to identify strengths and weaknesses. This helps them understand mistakes and avoid repeating them.

Self-evaluation and self-reaction are the two primary activities during the self-reflection phase this stage (Panadero, 2017). According to Panadero and Alonso-Tapia (2014), when an individual’s performance is compared to their objectives, it’s referred to as self-judgment. With self-judgement learners evaluate and assess their performance by applying their personal standards and set goals as criteria.

After self-evaluation, learners make causal attributions about the task outcomes, while their self-reactions reflect their responses to these outcomes (Zimmerman, 2013). Successful completion results in self-satisfaction and higher self-motivational beliefs to demonstrate the SRL skills in the three phases of Zimmerman and Moylan’s (2009) model. Negative appraisal can result in defensive reactions in efforts that learners make to protect their image after the failure of a task, such as blaming others for their mistakes or giving up on difficult tasks. Defensive reactions can be caused by factors such as apathy, lack of interest, or learned helplessness (Panadero and Alonso-Tapia, 2014) and is harmful as learners limit their growth with defensive reactions. Adaptive reaction involves learners independently deciding how to improve their efforts and achieve success after experiencing failure. For example, they might adjust their learning strategies for better performance or sustain their motivation and focus on future learning tasks (Panadero, 2017). The model is also cyclical in the sense that everything a learner has experienced in each phase during the completion of a task influences his or her choices with future tasks and the use of self-regulated learning skills.

2.4 Conceptual links between assessment, feedback, and SRL

Panadero (2017) indicates that assessment outlines how learning outcomes can be demonstrated; and that feedback on and for assessment gauges the learners’ abilities to monitor, assess, and control their own learning. This implies that SRL is part of assessment since the abilities to monitor, assess, and control own learning are SRL skills (Erfani and Nikbin, 2015). Timeous and immediate feedback allows the learners a better opportunity to evaluate and monitor their learning as the learning experience is still fresh in their memory, furthermore, the learners are better able to track their learning progress (Mngomezulu et al., 2024).

Feedback is an integral part of assessment and should provide information on what learners know concerning what they should know (Mngomezulu et al., 2024). This view of feedback in assessment implies that feedback strategies should highlight good practice, identify shortcomings, and bring about recommendations for the use of constructive feedback, for learners to improve their performance (Manual, 2020). Feedback, furthermore, plays an important role in aiding learners by clarifying misunderstandings, and finding defects in learning strategies and skills (Mngomezulu et al., 2024). It also contributes to SRL skills such as planning, monitoring, and evaluation of learning as well as the adaptation of learning strategies to task demands and progress (Manual, 2020).

3 Methods

The research paradigm that guided the execution of this study was Interpretivism (Yin, 2018). The interpretive paradigm was suitable since the research outcome was ultimately the product of the researchers’ subjective interpretation of the data to understand and explore the extent to which feedback practices of intermediate-phase teachers teaching English Home Language encouraged learners’ self-regulated learning skills. The empirical study was approached employing a qualitative research design in the form of an instrumental case study. One lesson observation and one individual, semi-structured interview was used to collect data from 15 purposively selected English Home Language teachers from five different schools in the Ennerdale region.

3.1 Sample

The purposive sample only included teachers in the intermediate phase, teaching English Home Language in public schools in the Ennerdale region. The teachers selected for the study were all female and were permanently employed at their respective schools.

In School A, Participant 1 has a B. Ed Honours Degree in Education and 22 years of experience teaching English; Participant 2 has a B. Ed Degree and 2 years of experience; and Participant 3 has a Higher Diploma in Education with 9 years of experience.

In School B, Participant 1 holds a B.Ed Honours Degree in Education and has been teaching English for 5 years; Participant 2 has an Advanced Certificate in Education and 6 years of experience; and Participant 3 has a Senior Primary Diploma in Education with 14 years of experience.

In School C, Participant 1 has a Higher Diploma in Education and 32 years of experience teaching English; Participant 2 has an Advanced Certificate in Education with 30 years of experience; and Participant 3 holds a Diploma in Education and has been teaching English for 20 years.

In School D, Participant 1 has a B.Ed Degree and 30 years of experience teaching English; Participant 2 has an Advanced Certificate in Education and 4 years of experience; and Participant 3 also has an Advanced Certificate in Education with 10 years of experience.

In School E, Participant 1 has a Higher Diploma in Education and 26 years of experience teaching English; Participant 2 holds a B.Ed Honours Degree with 6 years of experience; and Participant 3 has a Post-Graduate Certificate in Education and has been teaching English for 2 years.

The highest qualification among the participants is an Honours Degree in Education, while the lowest is a teacher’s diploma. Participants with 14 to 32 years of teaching experience still hold a Higher Diploma in Education, whereas the younger participants have degrees. The average teaching experience among the participants is 14 years.

3.2 Research sites

The Ennerdale region falls under the Gauteng Education District. Ennerdale is not only divided geographically by extensions but also socio-culturally. These sociocultural divisions are characterized by different levels of income, housing, employment, education, cultural and language backgrounds as well as the standard of living. For example, the region SA block (which is a geographical extension) is characterized by expensive housing valued from R1 million onwards. Thus, individuals who live there have higher levels of income, and higher levels of employment and are usually young and established professionals such as teachers, lawyers, or bankers. Learners living in this extension, are more proficient in English as they are exposed to English both at home and at school. In contrast, Extension 8 (geographical extension) is characterized by low-cost housing, which includes Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) houses. RDP houses are small houses built as part of a government-funded housing project. Individuals who live here are unemployed or have unskilled jobs such as domestic workers. Learners living in this extension do not often speak English in their homes and always communicate using their mother tongue. They only speak English at school (Manual, 2020).

The majority of learners at the participating schools are not native English speakers; they come from diverse linguistic backgrounds. For example, in this study, a learner might have a SeSotho-speaking mother and an IsiZulu-speaking father who migrated to Johannesburg. In such cases, English should ideally be the learner’s second additional language. However, English becomes the medium of instruction in school, despite the learner having no prior exposure to the language and insufficient support at home to learn it. Internationally, terms like ESL (English as a Second Language) or EFL (English as a Foreign Language) are used, but these terms do not adequately describe the linguistic repertoires of learners in a multilingual country like South Africa. Therefore, our curriculum uses the term “Additional Language.”

We selected three teachers from each of the five public primary schools in the Ennerdale region in the Gauteng Province. Three schools are quintile 4 schools and two are quintile 1 primary schools. The Department of Basic Education categorizes schools in quintiles based on the communities it represents. Quintile 1, 2 and 3 schools are representative of communities with high poverty rates and low education and therefore receives more funding from the state. Quintile 4 and 5 schools are schools with wealthy communities and receive less funding from the state (White and Van Dyk, 2019).

3.3 Data collection

The data collection methods utilized in the study comprised observations and individual, semi-structured interviews. The first author of this article acted as an observer during lesson observations to gain a deeper understanding of the extent to which the feedback practices of intermediate phase English Home Language teachers encouraged learners’ SRL skills. The lesson observations which lasted for two double periods (1 h) were structured to focus on the qualitative descriptions of the feedback practices and actions of the participants. A few days later the lesson observations were followed by individual, semi-structured interviews.

The aim of the interviews was to gain information about participants’ understanding of SRL skills, their perceptions of their feedback practices in their English Home Language classes, and how it encourages SLR skills. Examples of the main interview questions were: What type of feedback do you use in your English Home Language classes? How does the feedback you provide to your English Home Language learners encourage learners to: Set their own learning goals? Stay motivated and believe in their capabilities to learn and speak English as a Home Language? Select the best strategies to improve their learning? Evaluate the success of their learning? Take responsibility for their learning?

The validity of the study is supported by describing the findings in rich detail, with verbatim quotations so that readers can draw their conclusions from the data presented. Reliability was assured by applying similar procedures to all participants and a systematic approach to data collection consistent with the theoretical framework of feedback and SRL and the research aims. The university at which we are based granted ethical clearance for this study. The education departments and the principals of the five schools also granted permission to conduct this study. Ethical considerations such as informed consent, honesty, objectivity, confidentiality, anonymity, respect for the participants, protection from harm and the right to withdraw, were adhered to in this study (Maree, 2016).

3.4 Data analysis

Our data analysis approach was a hybrid approach which entails a thematic approach using both deductive and inductive data analysis (Proudfoot, 2023). The schools were coded using alphabet letters and participants received a number to protect their identities. For example, SBP5 refers to school B, participant number 5. Verbatim quotes, printed in italics were used to provide a rich description of participants’ views.

4 Results

4.1 Discussion of findings

Data from the observations and individual, semi-structured interviews were analysed, interpreted and integrated for the discussion that follows. The findings will be presented along with the discussion since everything is so closely intertwined. Discrepancies were noted in what some participants said in their interviews and what was observed during the lesson observations. These discrepancies will be pointed out in the discussion that follows.

According to Purković and Kovačević (2020) teachers’ perceptions are shaped by their attitudes and beliefs, prior general and pedagogic knowledge, life experiences, own education, work context, and culture among others. All of these and more could contribute to participants’ perceptions of their feedback practices that encourage SRL skills in English Home Language classes. Therefore, they were firstly asked to explain their understanding of the concept of feedback, their intentions with providing feedback, and the types of feedback they provide in their English Home Language classes. Secondly, they were asked which SRL skills they encourage to improve English Home Language proficiency? From participants’ responses, two main themes were created: Theme 1: perceptions of feedback practices that encourage SRL skills in English Home Language classes and Theme 2: perceptions of developed SRL skills to enhance English Home Language competency.

4.2 Theme 1: perceptions of feedback practices that encourage SRL skills in English Home Language classes

One participant (SCP3) explained her intention with feedback: …I need the learners to learn from their mistakes and the learners to see where they can improve themselves… That is why you need to encourage them to go in that direction so that the learner can work on their own.

Interview data revealed that participants also intend to develop Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) and build English language skills (cf. Department of Basic Education, 2011, p. 8) with their feedback. Some of their feedback goals include the fostering of reasoning and critical thinking skills to create metacognitive awareness (Manual, 2020). Participant, (SEP1) clarified: …the learners must be able to communicate confidently and effectively in their Home Language. They must be able to read and give information for enjoyment. They must be able to write different types of texts and for different purposes. They must also be able to use the language to think and reason. During the lesson observations it was observed, for example, that the following participants (SAP3, SBP2, SBP3, SCP1, SCP3, SEP1, and SEP2) allowed for self-feedback, permitting learners to work independently after receiving teacher feedback. As the learners were working on their activities, the participants provided oral feedback through explanations and discussions. They utilized higher-order questioning, requiring learners to provide reasons and explanations for why they chose a particular answer as correct or incorrect.

Moreover, with their feedback and teaching strategies, they intended to create task value by teaching learners useful writing skills and habits of mind such as persistence, and positive self-efficacy beliefs (Zimmerman and Moylan, 2009). This is how one participant explained: Completion of tasks comes from interest and interest comes from what they see a lot… many of the texts that they have are oral texts. Texts that are on a compact disc, where there is a narrator that tells the story, they really enjoy that, and then it, it sort of captures their interest, and that interest will then encourage them to complete their tasks (SAP1).

Participants mainly provide oral feedback at the task and process levels where feedback involves many transmission teaching approach strategies such as acquisition, storing, reproduction, use of knowledge, and changes in performance from previous efforts (Hattie and Timperley, 2007). One participant clarified: I give written activities after each lesson and assess. I mark their books timeously and the learners do corrections I also observe in the class where the learners communicate and answer questions and then we also do revision often to check on their progress (SEP1). These perceptions of participants were supported by the lesson observations where it was also noted that many participants favor traditional teaching approaches and positive reinforcement with their oral feedback on task level (Manual, 2020).

Participant SBP1 explained she teaches learners to be persistent on the task level for learners to experience success because of their effort and practice: It’s more of practice, practice on all the way… (SBP1). Another two participants added: I will call them, speak to them, and indicate where they have made the errors and thirdly is by positive encouragement (SDP3) and …they can see for themselves where their shortcomings are and say I need to address a, b, c and d I need to improve; I need to work a little harder… (SDP1).

One participant indicated that reflection on the story helps them to comprehend a lot (SBP3). Another participant added that they evaluate whatever they have with them and then redo or look at new ways that they can improve (SEP2). Participants struggled to explain the strategies they apply such as metacognitive questions they can ask to develop reflection, planning, monitoring, and self-evaluation skills to facilitate the improvement of learners’ efforts. One participant indicated: If they made mistakes, they redo it in the form of corrections where the learner self understands and says look, I did this wrong and I did that wrong and I can improve here, and I did not read the question there… (SCP3). Another participant’s response indicated that she believes she allows learners to take ownership and responsibility for their learning by understanding their shortcomings to bring improvement: …I teach them that they should take the initiative and say No this is my point of view and maybe this is what I got wrong, and you know that allows them to reflect now on what they have done (SEP2).

The following theme illustrates the SRL skills participants perceive themselves to encourage, with their teaching and learning strategies as well as with their feedback, to improve English Home Language proficiency. The SRL skills are grouped into sub-themes according to the three phases of Zimmerman and Moylan’s (2009) SRL model.

4.3 Theme 2: perceptions of developed SRL skills to enhance English Home Language competency

4.3.1 Sub-theme 2.1: SRL skills fostered before learning tasks

According to participants’ perspectives, they encourage the following SRL skills in the forethought phase of Zimmerman and Moylan’s (2009) model: goal setting, strategic planning, motivation and self-efficacy beliefs, outcomes expectations, and task value and interest.

4.3.1.1 Goal setting

To encourage goalsetting participants indicated that they provide constructive feedback for learners to aim high, they motivate learners, building their confidence to perform better and they also allow learners to create their rubrics where they write down their own goals: I encourage the learners to set up a rubric for their group and the group with the best rubric win like a chocolate or whatever. With the rubric game, they set their own goals, and they try to achieve those goals (SCP1). A rubric communicates expectations and clarifies learning targets, resulting in learner autonomy and assisting them in planning, monitoring, and achieving goals, by encouraging goal setting with rubrics, participants believe they teach learners to be persistent and put effort into their learning to achieve their goals (Zimmerman, 2000). Moreover, participants revealed that they want learners to envision where they want to be in the future; this relates to outcome expectations and self-motivational beliefs as it builds the learner’s own beliefs in their capabilities and encourages them to reach their future dreams (Zimmerman, 2015). For example, one participant indicated: …To be good readers, good listeners… whatever that I do with them in class they take it to their hearts and their minds and they can use it in future (SBP1).

However, during lesson observations, none of the participants displayed feedback to encourage goal setting and goal orientation. It was expected that before they began teaching, participants would state the lesson outcomes as a way of demonstrating goal setting, however, they did not. The learners may have been better able to focus their attention and establish learning objectives related to the skills and information they should have by the end of the lessons with the aid of the lesson outcomes. This might have boosted SRL abilities and English language competency.

4.3.1.2 Strategic planning

A few participants indicated that they perceived themselves to be encouraging learners to be strategic planners through setting up timetables to manage their time and focus when completing homework, studying, and specifically for learning tasks such as planning their first draft in essay writing. These strategies relate to time management an SRL skills: …telling them to set themselves a timetable, when to do their homework, when to study to reach the end point where they want to be, the outcome… (SDP1). Another added: I teach them to plan their writing when they work on their own and how to edit their essays (SDP3). Planning and editing of work help learners to refine what they want to say, allowing them to modify and adjust mistakes, and giving directions on how their essays should be structured. Participants did not elaborate on the strategies they exposed learners to enable them to make choices on suitable strategies to reach goals. During the lesson observations, the same two participants (SCP1 and SCP3) assisted learners during the planning phase of their essay writing. It was observed that after the teachers’ scaffolding, learners could autonomously continue their planning with their mind maps and start the first drafts of their essays.

4.3.1.3 Motivation and self-efficacy beliefs

By praising and motivating learners and providing tangible reinforcements like stickers and stars to help them feel more capable of achieving their goals, participants believe they are fostering motivation and self-efficacy beliefs: … when I stamp their books and I say 100% congratulations and I give them a certain kind of comment and a stamp that says wow, excellent, well done it boosts their self-confidence and their self-esteem so much that there are only positives that comes out of it (SDP1).

Their perceptions about the fostering of motivation and self-efficacy beliefs are supported by their teaching behavior during the lesson observations where learners’ efforts were acknowledged for being very good answers or well explained. Participants (SBP3, SCP3, SDP1, SDP3, SEP1, SEP2, and SEP3) praised learners when they provided correct answers. Participant SEP1 provided an opportunity for learners to clap hands if a learner wrote a correct answer on the board teaching learners to acknowledge each other’s efforts which builds learners’ beliefs in their capabilities to complete tasks successfully, which will sustain their motivation to achieve in English Home Language. High self-efficacy beliefs and motivation develop positive outcome expectations of learning (Zimmerman, 2015). However, this type of feedback can be regarded as ineffective as participants praised learners on their performance without specifying what made their performances outstanding (Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership, 2015).

4.3.1.4 Outcome expectations

Participants perceive themselves to be encouraging positive outcome expectations by creating awareness of the utility value of English language proficiency in the future. Participants also want learners to be active and conscious thinkers to make a difference in the world: This results in learners being good readers, listeners, and conscious thinkers, which will help them in the future (SDP3). However, only a few participants showed this encouragement of positive outcome expectations.

4.3.1.5 Task value and interest

Participants use of technology and pictures to capture learners’ interest and develop their attention-focusing skills: Completion of tasks comes from interest and interest comes from what they see. Many of the texts that they have are oral texts. I use texts that are on a compact disc, where there is a narrator that tells the story, they enjoy that and then, it sort of captures their interest, and that interest will then encourage them to complete their tasks (SAP1). Two participants added: … if you give them the pictures, they can tell you the story about that picture … (SBP2) said: Show them things visually it helps them a lot to understand the work (SCP1). By using their imagination to conjure up a story around a picture, learners can enhance their cognitive capacities for creative thoughts, which leads to the development of imagery as an SRL skill. Visuals, in the form of posters and reading books in the classroom, can also keep learners interested in tasks (Schunk et al., 2016).

Participants’ views of how they encourage task interest and task value were confirmed during the lesson observations. Participant SAP1 made use of practical demonstrations, where learners clap their hands, to break up words into syllables. Participant SBP1 allowed learners to read in groups; participant SCP1 used examples of learners’ everyday life situations such as what they do when they come from school to motivate learners to be creative writers. She also read a text to inspire ideas while learners were busy planning their essays. Participant SEP2 used practical examples to keep learners’ attention. The participant read a text while learners had to take notes, thereafter, the participant used practical objects, a letter, a knife, a cloth etcetera, and learners had to plan their discussion based on the objects the participant presented them with.

Participant SBP1 made use of scaffolding and peer feedback, where the stronger learners assisted the weaker learners with their reading and provided summative feedback by giving a mark for the reading. Participant SEP3 made learners write answers on the board and the rest of the class should say whether it was correct or incorrect and explain why. The strategies are useful to develop SRL skills such as self-questioning, reflection, and metacognitive knowledge. Additionally explaining answers and thoughts through the help and guidance of others can improve learners’ English language proficiency slowly moving them away from support and resulting in greater autonomy.

Although participants did not mention these strategies in the interviews it was observed during their lessons. Their strategies are conducive to creating task interest and task value by engaging learners in interesting tasks related to their everyday life situations, essay planning, discussions, practical demonstrations, spelling words, and reading tasks to keep learners motivated (Zimmerman, 2013). Task interest helps to develop and improve SRL skills because if learners have well-prepared teachers, they become interested in learning tasks which makes them persist and work harder (Schunk et al., 2016).

Next, SRL skills enhanced in the volitional phase will be discussed.

4.3.2 Sub-theme 2.2: SRL skills fostered during task completion

In the interviews, participants indicated they believe they encourage the following SRL skills in the volitional phase: the use of different task strategies, imagery, metacognitive self-monitoring, time management skills, and help-seeking skills when providing oral, written, formative, and self-feedback.

4.3.2.1 Task strategies

Participants (SEP1, SCP1, SBP3, SCP1, SCP2, SCP3) indicated that they utilize different task strategies to improve learners’ English proficiency through active learning. They mentioned the creation learning games, clarifying aspects of rubrics, engaging in practical work, use of flash cards, word searches, teaching learners to use dictionaries and writing summaries of what they have read and encouraging library visits with parents to assist learners with reading. One participant explained: I also create games, learning games just for them to be active enough in class (SBP3). Another example was: … We have word searches on our poems. I sent them to ask their parents to take them to the library to read stories with them and thereafter I let them write their stories or summarise what the story was about… (SCP3). Participant SDP2 read through a story, gave learners examples of higher-order questions, gave them opportunity to create their own higher-order questions based on the story and thereafter demonstrated how to write a summary of the story. Participant SEP2 encouraged attention focusing and note taking in a reading lesson. She read a story and learners had to take notes on important aspects, which will assist them with discussions in their groups.

4.3.2.2 Imagery

Participant (SBP2) mentioned she developed imagery by using pictures and posters to stimulate learners to create their own stories. Only one participant mentioned it in the interviews and only one participant (SBP3) was observed using imagery as an SRL skill. The participant allowed learners to predict through using pictures what will happen next in a story. This allowed learners to create a picture as to what might happen, to focus their attention, and to keep their interest in the lesson.

4.3.2.3 Metacognitive monitoring skills

Participants indicated they encourage metacognitive self-monitoring by providing learners opportunities to self-assess their performance to become aware of their mistakes. Participant SEP2 clarified: … after I give them feedback, they can criticise and evaluate their own work. It also guides them to become conscious, active thinkers so that when they enter the world, they are prepared to think about what they do and make a difference not just go with the flow. Lesson observations revealed that participants (SAP3, SBP2, SBP3, SCP1, SCP3, SEP1, and SEP2) fostered self-feedback where they allowed learners to autonomously make revisions after they provided feedback. While learners completed their activities, participants supported them with oral feedback through explanations and discussions. They employed higher-order questioning, requiring learners to justify their answers and explain why they were correct or incorrect. Participants provided descriptive feedback using examples to illustrate errors, written feedback through corrections, and peer feedback, where learners assisted each other. However, in most lessons, participants did not provide an opportunity for learners to self-observe and self-record their performances to find possible causes of success or failure.

4.3.2.4 Time management skills

Only a few participants addressed time management skills in their lessons. Through self-feedback, participants (SAP3 and SEP3) gave learners follow-up activities to complete after the oral feedback they provided. Participant SAP3 taught her learners for a double period. She used the first period to provide oral feedback on a written activity and instructed learners to manage their time so that they could complete the activity before the end of the second period. Participant SEP3 gave learners 5 min to underline the subject and predicate in sentences.

By not using feedback to encourage learners to complete class and homework tasks within a specific target time, many participants missed the opportunity to encourage learners to manage their time more effectively and to develop time management skills. For example, participants (SAP1, SDP1, SDP3, and SEP1) provided time in class for learners to complete their corrections, but they did not indicate how long learners had to finish with the corrections. Two other participants (SCP1 and SCP3) gave learners an opportunity to write the planning of their essays without indicating to learners what would be effective time spent on their planning. Likewise, participants (SDP1 and SDP3) provided homework without specifying a due date for completion (Manual, 2020).

4.3.2.5 Help-seeking skills

During the interviews participants (SAP2, SCP1, SDP2) indicated they developed help-seeking skills by encouraging learners to use libraries, dictionaries, the Internet, and peer engagement to improve their understanding of content. One participant indicated: …they will question it with their peers and the peer will explain to them, they’ll come together to complete tasks (SCP1). The encouragement of help seeking from peers and the teacher for assistance were observed to a limited extent during lesson observations. In a reading lesson, learners engaged in peer feedback where the stronger learners assisted the weaker learners with their reading (SBP1). Another participant added: … and use what you have available to … you have your dictionary; you have your textbook, and you have your reader and the internet (SDP2). Participants (SBP2 and SCP1) used descriptive feedback to prompt learners to seek help from her as the teachers and to ask higher-order questions. Higher-order questions require reasons and explanations, to seek clarity regarding the outline of an essay, and the writing of a dialogue.

SRL skills such as structuring of a favourable learning environment, interest incentives and self-consequences after task completion as well as self-recording were not mentioned in the interviews nor observed during the lesson observations.

In the next section, SRL skills enhanced in the reflection phase will be discussed.

4.3.3 Sub-theme 2.3: SRL skills fostered after task completion

From the interview data, it can be inferred that participants perceive themselves as developing self-evaluation skills in learners. They believe they are teaching learners to build realistic attributions for their successes or failures, to adapt their behavior after failure, and to avoid practicing defensive behavior in response to failure.

4.3.3.1 Opportunity for self-evaluation and self-judgement

During the lesson observations, it was observed that participants (SAP1 and SEP1) provided written feedback through writing corrections on the board and learners completed corrections in their books. Participants (SAP3, 116 SBP1, SCP2, and SEP3) provided self-feedback where learners completed a follow-up activity after they have received feedback in the form of corrections and reflect on their reading mistakes after they received a summative mark. Participants encouraged self-reflection by instructing learners to mark their activities in books (SDP1 and SDP3). Participants (SEP1 and SEP3) incorporated peer feedback in their lessons where they allowed learners to write answers on the board and the peers had to identify whether the answer is correct or incorrect and explain why.

4.3.3.2 Self-satisfaction

During the observations, participants displayed knowledge of the importance of self-satisfaction after the successful completion of a task and achievement of learning goals. They used praise (SBP3, SCP1, SCP2, SCP3, SDP1, SDP3, SEP1, and SEP2) as positive reinforcement to make learners experience positive feelings toward learning. This is how one participant clarified: I think important in feedback is also complimenting the learners. I also give them the sticker and acknowledge the good that they have done… (SAP1). Participants indicated that they see the expressions of self-satisfaction on learners’ faces that they understood a task: You actually see it in many learners where they nod their head, they smile, they so sort of show you they have received it, they have internalized it and this is now how they going to go about it, remedying it and improving … (SAP1).

Participants did not express in the interviews how they think they promote self-evaluation skills following a learning task. The development of accurate attributions, refraining from defensive actions, and changing one’s behavior after failing were also neither mentioned or demonstrated in the lessons.

5 Discussion of findings

The first theme revealed that participants understand the concept of feedback and have specific intentions with the feedback they give. They perceive feedback mostly as a process to inform learners about their strengths and weaknesses, and to create awareness of mistakes that can result in improved work (Manual, 2020). They provide feedback to the parents regarding learners’ progress, to help learners to understand instructions and new knowledge, and build their confidence through developing their reading, writing, and communication competencies (Manual, 2020). Participants perceive their feedback to be focused on the correction of learners’ faulty interpretations in written or oral tasks. They indicated that they normally utilize discussions, and repeated explanations in addition to extra time for continuous remedial work and practice, providing feedback throughout the process (Manual, 2020). Feedback on the self-level, which focuses on learners’ comprehension of their own progress and performance was also limited in both the interviews and the lesson observations. Only two participants perceive themselves to provide feedback on the regulatory process level, which allows learners to reflect, plan, monitor, self-evaluate, and engage further in a task. While participants understand the fundamentals of the feedback concept their responses showed that they frequently overlook its more expansive goals, which include opportunities that should enable learners to monitor and evaluate their learning, self-feedback that should enhance deeper learning, and feedback that empowers learners to take ownership and responsibility for their learning (Hattie and Timperley, 2007; Panadero et al., 2019).

The feedback provided by participants supports the development of various self-regulated learning (SRL) skills, such as motivation and persistence. Overcoming mistakes and witnessing progress enhances learners’ motivation and persistence, teaching them that effort and perseverance can lead to improvement. By communicating with learners about their errors, participants help them learn to effectively use feedback. This process assists learners in developing the skill of self-assessment, as they learn to recognize and understand their mistakes. This skill is crucial for self-regulated learning, as it helps learners understand and correct their errors. Positive encouragement boosts learners’ confidence and self-efficacy beliefs. Additionally, strategic planning skills, adaptation of task strategies, and metacognitive monitoring skills can be developed, as effective remediation requires learners to plan study strategies, allocate time to focus on areas needing improvement, and employ various strategies to better understand the material, such as reviewing notes, seeking help, or using additional resources. Learners also become adept at self-evaluation to identify their errors and areas of weakness, enabling critical evaluation and understanding of what needs improvement. Redoing work or finding new ways to improve fosters strategic thinking and adaptability. Reflection is a part of metacognitive monitoring skills; therefore, the oral feedback provided by participants allows learners to reflect on stories, helping them internalize information and connect it to their prior knowledge.

5.1 SRL skills fostered before learning tasks

The findings of the second theme indicate that participants have a clear understanding of the SRL skills they aim to foster before learning tasks, but there are discrepancies between their intentions and practices. While participants believe they encourage goal setting by using rubrics and envisioning future outcomes, this was not observed during lesson observations. Explicitly stating lesson outcomes could help learners focus their attention and establish learning objectives, thereby enhancing SRL skills and English language competency.

The encouragement of strategic planning through timetables and planning phases in essay writing was noted. However, participants did not elaborate on how they help learners choose suitable strategies to reach their goals. Observations showed that scaffolding during planning phases allowed learners to continue autonomously, indicating a positive impact on SRL skills.

Participants’ efforts to praise and motivate learners were observed to boost self-confidence and motivation. However, the feedback was often generic, lacking specificity about what made performances outstanding. More detailed feedback could better support the development of self-efficacy beliefs and motivation.

Encouraging positive outcome expectations was reported by only a few participants. Increasing awareness of the practical benefits of English language proficiency and fostering a mindset of active thinking could further enhance SRL skills.

The use of engaging materials and practical demonstrations was effective in capturing learners’ interest and maintaining attention. These strategies are conducive to developing SRL skills by making learning tasks more interesting and relevant to learners’ lives.

5.1.1 Sub-theme 2.2: SRL skills fostered during task completion

The findings indicate that while participants recognize the importance of fostering SRL skills during task completion, there are areas where their practices could be improved. The use of diverse task strategies to engage learners in active learning is commendable. Participants’ efforts to incorporate games, practical work, and reading activities help develop learners’ English proficiency and SRL skills. However, there is room for more consistent application of these strategies across different lessons and participants.

The use of imagery as a teaching strategy is limited. While it was effective when used, more participants should incorporate imagery to stimulate learners’ creativity and attention. Literature supports the use of pictures to increase interest and visualization (Panadero and Alonso-Tapia, 2014).

Encouraging self-assessment and metacognitive self-monitoring is vital for developing SRL skills. While participants provided opportunities for self-assessment, there was a lack of consistent practices for self-observation and self-recording of performances. Implementing these practices could enhance learners’ awareness of their learning processes and outcomes.

Addressing time management skills is crucial for developing SRL. Although some participants provided follow-up activities and oral feedback, many missed opportunities to reinforce time management by not specifying time limits or due dates. Clear guidelines and consistent reinforcement of time management strategies would benefit learners.

Encouraging help-seeking from peers and teachers is essential for developing SRL skills (Zimmerman, 2002). Participants’ efforts to promote academic help-seeking using external resources like libraries, dictionaries, and the Internet are beneficial. Seeking academic assistance is thought to be a crucial SRL skill that supports learners’ learning (Karabenick and Knapp, 1991). The following categories of help-seeking noted by Karabenick and Knapp (1991) were noted in the participants’ responses and lesson observations. They urged learners to approach them as teachers with questions and requests for assistance. A meaningful learning process that improves knowledge development and shows an active involvement in learning necessitates asking questions as a means of seeking assistance. Additionally, students were encouraged to ask for informal guidance from their classmates as well as through instrumental activities where they were taught to put in more effort to enhance their performances. Observing more structured peer engagement and higher-order questioning can further enhance these skills.

Overall, while participants are making efforts to foster SRL skills during task completion, there is potential for more consistent and comprehensive application of these strategies. Enhancing imagery use, providing clear time management guidelines, and encouraging structured help-seeking practices can further support the development of SRL skills in learners.

5.1.2 Sub-theme 2.3: SRL skills fostered after task completion

Although participants did not mention how they developed self-evaluation and self-judgment skills in the interviews, the lesson observation revealed that participants incorporated different teaching strategies to encourage learners to self-evaluate and monitor their performance (Panadero and Alonso-Tapia, 2014) against goals or lesson outcomes set by participants (Schunk et al., 2016). The findings suggest that participants are making efforts to develop SRL skills after task completion, but there are areas for improvement. While participants are making strides in fostering SRL skills after task completion, there is a need for more explicit and consistent emphasis on self-evaluation, accurate attributions, and adaptive behaviors following failure. This can be achieved through professional development and reflective practices that help participants better understand and articulate their teaching strategies.

6 Conclusion

The aim of this study was twofold: first, to investigate participants’ perceptions of their feedback practices that promote SRL skills in their English Home Language classes; and second, to examine which SRL skills participants encourage to enhance proficiency in English Home Language. The findings related to the first research question indicate that the participants’ feedback practices largely emphasize immediate, corrective feedback aimed at improving task performance and building foundational English language proficiency skills. However, there is a notable gap in using feedback to develop SRL skills. The participating teachers do not consistently use feedback to help learners monitor and evaluate their learning, adapt strategies to correct errors, or take ownership of their learning.

Concerning the second research question the findings indicate that not all sub-processes in Zimmerman and Moylan’s (2009) model were mentioned as SRL skills by participants during the individual, semi-structured interviews. However, the findings of the lesson observations indicate that participants encourage the use of SRL skills such as strategic planning, motivation and self-efficacy beliefs, task value and interest, task strategies, imagery, time management, help-seeking, self-evaluation, self-satisfaction, and self-recording. Participants also did not mention the fostering of time management skills through feedback, but during the lesson observations, it was observed that they provided learners with specific time to complete activities. It can be inferred that the context of the lesson observations might have prompted participants to emphasize the fostering of SRL skills more than they would mentioned in the discussion about teaching practices in the interview settings. Another possible reason might be that participants lack a clear comprehension or vocabulary regarding SRL skills and are not consciously aware of or able to express how they integrate the development of SRL skills through feedback. This suggests a disconnect between participants’ conceptual understanding of the development of SRL skills through feedback and how they are developing SRL skills when teaching English Home Language.

7 Recommendations

Based on the findings, the following recommendations are made for teaching practice:

The Department of Basic Education should prioritize pedagogical training for English Language teachers. Targeted professional development courses can help to bridge teachers’ knowledge gaps in effectively encouraging and developing SRL skills. These professional development courses should focus on helping teachers integrate SRL-promoting feedback practices into their classrooms.

The Department of Basic Education and schools should implement targeted workshops to raise teachers’ awareness and understanding of SRL skills, offering opportunities for collaborative learning where teachers can share insights and best practices related to SRL. Workshops should offer practical examples and demonstrations to help teachers understand how to incorporate SRL principles into their daily instruction.

English Home language teachers should align teaching and feedback practices to foster SRL skills. They should be encouraged to explicitly integrate SRL skills into their teaching and feedback strategies.

A culture of continuous professional development should be fostered, emphasizing the importance of constructivist teaching approaches and staying informed about new concepts and strategies related to SRL.

Data availability statement

The datasets presented in this study can be found in online repositories. The names of the repository/repositories and accession number(s) can be found in the article/supplementary material.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by Education Faculty Research Ethics Committee (EduRec). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study. Written informed consent was obtained from the individual(s) for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article.

Author contributions

JM: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Methodology. BG: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing – review & editing, Formal analysis, Investigation. KK: Supervision, Writing – review & editing.

Funding

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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