Arman Sousan
Panteha Farmanesh
Pouya Zargar- Business Faculty, Girne American University, Karmi, Cyprus
Surface acting (SA) is a heavy emotional and cognitive task practiced by nurses, which has negative consequences on their wellbeing. The shortage of nurses along with the occurrence of the COVID-19 pandemic has worsened the situation. Based on job demands-resources (JD-R) and conservation of resources theories, this study aims to investigate the adverse impact of practicing SA and buffering effect of a sense of community (SOC) on job stress (JS) and cognitive weariness (CW) among Iranian nurses confronting COVID-19. As this study is written within the scope of Frontiers’ call for research on “Spirituality in the workplace,” the findings suggest that the aforementioned factors are in significant positive relationships. Furthermore, the empirical evidence indicates that there is a significant indirect effect of SA on CW through JS. In addition, results reveal that there is a buffering effect of SOC on the SA and JS relationship, while there is no significant moderation effect regarding the JS and cognitive weariness association. The findings of this study provide theoretical and practical implications within the scope of spirituality in the workplace.
Introduction
Nurses experience heavy job demands due to the nature of their occupation, and during the COVID-19 pandemic, the situation has become increasingly extreme. This has become a topic of interest for scholars in the adverse consequences of demanding jobs during the COVID-19 pandemic (e.g., Hoseinabadi et al., 2020). There are numerous studies reporting disconcerting findings on negative wellbeing outcomes among nurses worldwide (e.g., Catania et al., 2021; Kackin et al., 2021), and particularly, Iran (e.g., Karimi et al., 2020; Nemati et al., 2021) confronting COVID-19. Studies present empirical evidence suggesting a global increase in the level of insomnia, suicidal behavior, post-traumatic stress disorder, and burnout among healthcare workers (HCWs) (Chirico et al., 2021b). Volunteers in the healthcare system who are in continuous and close contact with suffering patients, similar to HCWs, are at risk for burnout (Chirico et al., 2021a). Furthermore, nurses practice heavy tasks regarding emotional regulation to fulfill their job requirements due to high market competition and customer-centered services in the medical business environment (Grandey and Melloy, 2017). Similar to the current global nursing shortage (Spurlock, 2020), Iran is experiencing a serious shortage of nurses (Shamsi and Peyravi, 2020). Thus, we proposed that the findings of this study may have international implications for researchers and practitioners interested in nurses’ wellbeing.
According to job demands-resources (JD-R) and conservation of resources (COR) theories, emotional and cognitive efforts increase the perceived job demands and communal resources that contribute to higher levels of perceived job resources by individuals (Demerouti et al., 2001; Hobfoll et al., 2018). When job demand exceeds job resources, it will drive individuals to experience negative states of wellbeing through job stress (JS) (Schaufeli and Taris, 2014). Surface acting (hereafter SA) is the practice of emotional regulation to align felt emotions with required emotional display for conducting an occupation, which requires significant emotional and cognitive endeavors (Grandey and Melloy, 2017). Sense of community (SOC) is the dimension of workplace spirituality, which occurs at the group level concerning interactions among employees to evaluate the deepness of their interconnections (Milliman et al., 2003). It is a valuable communal resource for individuals to cope with stressors such as SA through perceiving spirituality (Zou and Dahling, 2017). There are studies suggesting workplace interventions as highly effective actions for improving the mental wellbeing of high-risk groups (e.g., Pieper et al., 2019; Chirico and Ferrari, 2021; Fox et al., 2021).
Surface acting is found as a destructive emotional labor strategy regarding the generation of JS (Kim, 2020) and the consequent cognitive weariness (CW) (Bakker and Heuven, 2006). While CW is one of the dimensions of burnout, reflecting the lack of focus and mental capacity due to overexposure to stressors (Melamed et al., 1999), it may lead to fatal errors among nurses, which is a critical problem and underlying concern of this study. Thus, this study aims to investigate the adverse effects of SA on nurses confronting COVID-19 regarding CW. In addition, focusing on SA and emitting deep acting will reduce the social desirability bias in nurses’ responses to this study survey, which is thoroughly elaborated in the section “Data Collection and Sampling Design.”
There are numerous studies examining the effect of individual differences in experiencing emotional labor (Kammeyer-Mueller et al., 2013). However, there are personal differences in different contexts, which remain unexplored (Zou and Dahling, 2017). This study focuses on specific aspects of workplace spirituality, namely, SOC as differences among nurses confronting COVID-19. This study aims to fill a gap in the literature regarding the moderation effect of SOC as the group-level dimension of workplace spirituality on the relationship between SA and CW through perceived JS. The study thus contributes to the extant literature regarding the negative consequences of SA and the possible buffering effect of group-level workplace spirituality. According to the aforementioned theories, evidence suggesting the shielding effect of SOC as a job resource against the adverse effect of SA as a job demand on JS and the resulting CW is expected.
Theoretical Overview and Development of Hypotheses
Job Demands-Resources and Conservation of Resources Theories
The JD-R model predicts organizational outcomes, through two main categories, namely, job demands and job resources (Demerouti et al., 2001). This model investigates job resources as personal, communal, and organizational resources, which can be exploited by employees to improve their respective physical and mental aspects (Demerouti and Bakker, 2011). Relatedly, job demands are defined as organizational requirements that require physical and psychological efforts for fulfillment. If individuals perceive job demands outweighing job resources, they will experience physical and cognitive costs in form of JS, exhaustion, and burnout (Schaufeli and Taris, 2014). SA as one of the emotional labor strategies to regulate felt emotions in accordance with demanded emotional display contributes to the increase in perceived job demands (Bakker and Heuven, 2006; Lee and Madera, 2019). SOC as a communal resource increases perceived job resources by individuals (Zou and Dahling, 2017).
The COR is a stress theory explaining individuals’ motivation to maintain and pursue tangible and intangible resources to attain or defend their goals (Halbesleben et al., 2014; Hobfoll et al., 2018). SA as a resource-depleting practice (Uy et al., 2017) activates the perception of resource loss among individuals, which consequently leads to JS and CW (Rafaeli et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2016; Isoard-Gautheur et al., 2019). SOC is a resource addressing group-level spirituality at the workplace, which according to COR theory, can be exploited by employees to enhance their performance and wellbeing (Zou and Dahling, 2017). Thus, this study forms its theoretical foundation based on the aforementioned theories.
Surface Acting and Job Stress
Empirical evidence suggests that SA brings stress to service workers (Grandey, 2003; Ogunsola et al., 2020). Many studies introduce SA as an unfitting emotional labor strategy leading to negative consequences such as JS and burnout (e.g., Li et al., 2017; Jeung et al., 2018). These findings are aligned with the fundamental theories of this study. According to the JD-R and COR theories, SA increases the perceived job demand and perceived loss/depletion of job resources and, consequently, will drive employees to higher levels of stress (Choi et al., 2019). Thus, we developed the following hypothesis:
H1: There is a positive relationship between SA and JS.
Job Stress and Cognitive Weariness
Cognitive weariness is bound to chronic exposure to JS (Shirom and Melamed, 2006), and there are numerous studies suggesting a positive JS-CW linkage (e.g., Shirom, 2003; Rydmark et al., 2006; Bridger et al., 2011; Deligkaris et al., 2014; Isoard-Gautheur et al., 2019). This is also embedded within the aforementioned theoretical premises. Hence, the following hypothesis is established:
H2: There is a positive impact of JS on CW.
Surface Acting and Cognitive Weariness
Surface acting involves inhibiting the expression of genuinely felt emotions, referred to as expressive suppression behavior (Yeung and Wong, 2020). Literature suggests emotion-regulation strategies involving expressive suppression behavior yield negative cognitive consequences (Richards and Gross, 2000). SA as a response-focused strategy consumes individuals’ cognitive resources, leading to cognitive exhaustion (Yagil, 2012). As a vital element, CW is regarded as the main dependent variable of this study. Therefore, the following hypothesis was developed:
H3: There is a positive association between SA and CW.
Surface Acting, Job Stress, and Cognitive Weariness
Earlier literature stated SA, through increasing perceived job demands, contributes to JS. In addition, CW as a subdimension of burnout is generated by chronic stress. Thus, it is possible to infer that the effect of SA on CW is through JS. This inference is supported by literature suggesting the mediation effect of JS on the relationship between different dimensions of emotional labor and burnout (e.g., Choi et al., 2019; Theodosius et al., 2021). Hence, the following hypothesis is formulated:
H4: The JS mediates the relationship between SA and CW.
Moderation Effect of Sense of Community
Many studies are investigating the moderation effect of SOC on employees’ wellbeing (e.g., Altaf and Awan, 2011; Saks, 2011; Kumar and Kumar, 2014; Zou and Dahling, 2017; Lata and Chaudhary, 2020). Chirico (2021) explained that during the COVID-19 pandemic, HCWs have experienced extremely high emotional loads because of witnessing the death of patients isolated from their loved ones. Chirico stated that lockdown situations and resulting social and economic issues along with fear of death and uncertainty about the future have complicated the emotional survival of healthcare professionals. The author concluded that spiritual resources are pivotal in order to face the current pandemic with less negative mental consequences. These findings are aligned with the foundational theories of this study considering SOC as a communal resource for fulfilling job demands regarding goals. Thus, the following hypotheses were shaped:
H5: SOC moderates the relationship between SA and JS.
H6: SOC moderates the relationship between JS and CW.
The hypothesized model of this study is illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Research framework.
Methodology
Data Collection and Sampling Design
The sample size was calculated using G*power software (Faul et al., 2007), and the resulting number is 126 (statistical power = 80%, effect size = 0.01, number of arrows pointing at CW = 6). Furthermore, the calculated sample size was compared with the recommendations of Hair et al. (2017) for the model (6 predictors, statistical power = 80%, Min R2 = 0.10, and α = 0.01), which is 179. Thus, any sample size above 179 should have adequate statistical power to draw valid conclusions. We used online questionnaires as the instrument for this quantitative and cross-sectional study. A pilot test was conducted with 35 nurses from a selected clinic to ensure the understandability and validity of items. The samples from the pilot test were not included in the data collection process. A total of 300 questionnaires were distributed among nurses working in different medical clinics and private hospitals in Tehran. With an 84.33% response rate, 253 responses were qualified for final analysis. Employing random sampling methods was not feasible for the authors at the time of conducting this study due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, we utilized a combination of non-probability methods of sampling to cover this limitation as much as possible. Accordingly, convenience and snowball sampling techniques were used to contact gatekeepers and Iranian nurses (Tongco, 2007). Furthermore, available nurses were filtered according to the inclusion criterion to select qualified respondents aligned with the context of this study (Etikan et al., 2016).
Inclusion Criterion
The criterion for inclusion was Iranian nurses, dealing with suspected or confirmed COVID-19.
Respondents’ Profile
All 253 respondents were Muslim, with 87% women and 67% single (marital status). The average age among participants was 33.4 (SD = 5.9) years, and the average job tenure was 5.8 (SD = 6.1) years.
Questionnaire Development
To minimize common method bias, all participants were assured confidentiality of responses (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Proximal separation based on Jordan and Troth’s (2020) instructions was practiced in the development of the questionnaire by asking respondents about their daily activities. In addition, focusing on SA and emitting deep acting will reduce the social desirability bias in nurses’ responses to this study survey (Larson, 2019; Taherdoost, 2019). Finally, a collinearity test was conducted and the variance inflation factor (VIF) scores did not exceed the cutoff value of 3.3 (Kock, 2015). Thus, there was no concern regarding the existence of common method bias in the collected data.
Measures and Control Variables
All items measuring employed latent constructs are anchored on a seven-point Likert response scale. To measure SA, we adapted the seven-item scale originally developed by Grandey (2003). JS was measured using the short version of the Perceived Stress Scale with four items developed by Warttig et al. (2013). SOC was measured using Milliman et al.’s scale. In this scale, SOC is defined as a subdimension of workplace spirituality with seven items. CW was measured using five items of the Shirom-Melamed Burnout Measure (SMBM) developed by Melamed et al. (1999) as one of the subdimensions of burnout. The employed control variables were selected based on literature (potential demographic predictors of CW). Thus, marital status (Ortega et al., 2018), age, and job experience (Brewer and Shapard, 2004) were treated as exogenous variables regressed on CW (Becker et al., 2016).
Analyses
Partial-least squares-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) was used to examine the hypothesized model. The justifications are (a) employment of latent variables in the model, (b) adequate statistical power with relatively small sample sizes, and (c) no concern regarding normality of distributions (Hair et al., 2017).
Findings
Assessing Measurement and Structural Models
The measurement model has been found acceptable since (1) outer loadings are above 0.708 (Hair et al., 2019); (2) values representing internal consistency including Rho A (Dijkstra and Henseler, 2015), Cronbach’s alpha (Diamantopoulos et al., 2012), and composite reliability (Jöreskog’s, 1971) are meeting satisfactory levels (0.7 < values < 0.9); (3) average variance extracted (AVE) values for constructs are above 0.5 representing the adequate convergent validity (Hair et al., 2017); and (4) values of the heterotrait-monotrait (HTMT) ratio as the most reliable measure of discriminant validity does not exceed the cutoff value of 0.85 (Henseler et al., 2015). Tables 1, 2 represent the assessment of the measurement model.
Table 1. Reliability and convergent validity of measures.
Table 2. Heterotrait-monotrait ratio (HTMT).
The structural model should meet the following requirements: (a) the normal fit index (NFI = 0.927) and the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR = 0.028) indicate satisfactory model fit (Henseler et al., 2014); (b) there was no concern with multicollinearity since values of inner VIF were below the 3 (Hair et al., 2019); and (c) values representing R-squared (in-sample predictive power) and Q-squared (predictive relevance) were calculated and meet satisfactory levels (Henseler et al., 2009). Table 3 depicts the structural model assessment.
Table 3. Structural model assessment and hypothesis testing.
Hypotheses Testing
First, the findings of this study suggest a significant and positive relationship between SA and JS (β = 0.324, t = 5.203), supporting H1. Second, the results suggest a similar association between JS and CW (β = 0.424, t = 6.841), supporting H2. Third, similar results were found for SA and CW (β = 0.218, t = 2.971), supporting H3. Fourth, the findings propose a significant indirect effect of SA on CW through JS (β = 0.126, t = 2.994), thus, supporting H4. Fifth, the outcome of conducted analysis depicts that SOC significantly moderates the relationship between SA and JS through a buffering effect (β = − 0.142, t = 2.247). Therefore, the fifth hypothesis is supported. Finally, the results indicate that there is no significant moderation effect by SOC on JS-CW linkage (β = − 0.035, t = 0.951). Hence, H6 is not supported. The last finding corresponds with Crescenzo et al.’s (2021) results suggesting that there is no significant relationship between transcendental orientation (tendency to spirituality) and burnout dimensions. Table 3 provides the findings of hypotheses testing.
Conclusion
Findings and Theoretical Contribution
The results imply a significant effect posed on JS through SA. Embedded within the premise of JD-R and COR theories, this study provides a theoretical contribution in the context of the SA-JS relationship and, subsequently, JS-CW linkage. This not only supports the theoretical foundation of this study but also further provides a more thorough understanding of the underlying effects related to CW. In addition to what was noted, this study develops the theoretical understanding of mediation effects that are analyzed in the proposed model. Hence, this study contributes to both organizational psychology and healthcare management in terms of literature, and theoretical development. These findings extend the extant literature in a manner that opens a pathway for future researchers and agrees with prior studies (e.g., Ahmad and Ogunsola, 2011; Fontaine, 2018; Ogunsola, 2018; Ogunsola et al., 2020). Our findings suggest having employees who feel good within their workplace will have a collective effect exceeding one individual to others in the group and vice versa.
Practical Implications
In the light of what was noted earlier, current findings provide practical implications that are derived from and are linked to its theoretical concepts. In this sense, a twofold implication for the managerial level and their strategies/actions regarding the retention of employees in the service sector is highlighted. First, emotional labor and its influence on wellbeing costs is emphasized and is to be taken into consideration by managers in the service sector, particularly those within the healthcare management industry (Hülsheger and Schewe, 2011; Zou and Dahling, 2017). Cognizance of managers is vital regarding the costs of emotion management and its requirements. This yields valuable, tangible, and positive outcomes in their respective firms (Grandey and Gabriel, 2015; Fontaine, 2018). Second, this study follows a string of research that emphasizes on positive outcomes of SOC within organizations. Although the workplace environment is commonly regarded as a secular space, spiritual concerns might be difficult for some managers to exhibit and reflect on (Chan-Serafin et al., 2013; Houghton et al., 2016). Consequently, this leads to an environment where individuals can sense spirituality and be encouraged to exhibit positive behavioral outcomes. As this study is written within the scope of Frontiers’ call for research “Spirituality in the workplace,” these findings contribute to the status quo of the extant literature. A manager can foster such an environment within the firm by establishing adequate and proper support for staff on an individual level. Our results are aligned with Karasek and Theorell’s (1990) expanded version of the job strain model, which includes social and communal support as a critical moderator of JS and psychological wellbeing relationship. The developers of this model note that job stressors can be reduced through workplace changes and the reorganization of production for less risk of stress is imperative (Crescenzo, 2016). There are a number of elements that can be used in this regard (see Rego and Pina e Cunha, 2008; Weinberg and Locander, 2014; Ogunsola et al., 2020).
Our results suggest organizations and subsequently their managers emphasize SOC. In this sense, initiatives and programs can be developed and designed to enhance SOC for employees and bridge the firm to its staff, customers, and society in a more profound manner. Such practices are essential for creating meaning at work through engaging with employees and developing their overall quality of life (e.g., Pratt and Ashforth, 2003; Saks, 2011; Ogunsola et al., 2020). Community-building initiatives provide a path for individuals within the firm to better establish interpersonal bonds and identify similarities (through cultural intelligence). These practices entail elements such as family-like dynamics at work, directed toward values. Notably, this direction exceeds merely profit concepts and enters the overall quality of life of employees (Ogunsola, 2018; Ogunsola et al., 2020).
Limitations and Recommendations for Future Studies
Several constraints influenced the conduct of the current study while opening a pathway for future studies to include variables such as spiritual intelligence as a mediator for SA and DA negative linkage with OC. First, this study employed a self-report questionnaire for data collection. This poses a limit on capturing in-depth responses from respondents. Future studies can undertake qualitative methods to gain an in-depth understanding of the factors involved (i.e., interviews). Second, the data were collected in a cross-sectional manner, which limits the generalizability of findings. Future studies can obtain longitudinal data that can highlight changes and effects in a longer period. Third, interactions between job demand and resources can be better captured if reciprocal effects are assessed (see Schaufeli and Taris, 2014). However, this was not within the scope of the current study due to the cross-sectional nature of the data. Future research can avoid this issue by using longitudinal data for analyzing reciprocal effects among SA, SOC, JS, and CW.
Fourth, this study was limited due to restrictions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, and, therefore, the probability sampling method could not be used. The validity of current findings can be tested through future studies using the probability sampling method. Fifth, nurses’ SA is considered through SOC as a context within the premises of JD-R and COR theories. As a consequence, personal resources can be included within the scope of these theories (e.g., self-efficacy, personality traits, and physical or cognitive conditions) (Xanthopoulou et al., 2007; Wang, 2020). Job demands, job resources, and personal resources can be incorporated in future studies to increase the generalizability of current results in the healthcare sector. Finally, SOC interventions can be experimented for enhancing JS and CW. In other words, SOC-building interventions within the workplace can be a variety of activities (e.g., workshops and different communication systems) to deliver the values of the firm to its employees thoroughly and ensure that individuals are aware of their value and importance and to achieve common goals for benefit of everyone involved. This can be tested in the context of the physical and psychological conditions of JS and CW.
Data Availability Statement
The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article can be made available upon request by the authors.
Ethics Statement
Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent for participation was not required for this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.
Author Contributions
PF: supervision. AS: analysis and writing. PZ: writing and editing. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Publisher’s Note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
References
Ahmad, K., and Ogunsola, O. K. (2011). An empirical assessment of Islamic leadership principles. Int. J. Commer. Manage. 21, 291–318. doi: 10.1108/10569211111165325
Altaf, A., and Awan, M. A. (2011). Moderating affect of workplace spirituality on the relationship of job overload and job satisfaction. J. Bus. Ethics 104, 93–99.
Bakker, A. B., and Heuven, E. (2006). Emotional dissonance, burnout, and in-role performance among nurses and police officers. Int. J. Stress Manage. 13:423.
Becker, T. E., Atinc, G., Breaugh, J. A., Carlson, K. D., Edwards, J. R., and Spector, P. E. (2016). Statistical control in correlational studies: 10 essential recommendations for organizational researchers. J. Organiz. Behav. 37, 157–167.
Brewer, E. W., and Shapard, L. (2004). Employee burnout: a meta-analysis of the relationship between age or years of experience. Hum. Res. Dev. Rev. 3, 102–123. doi: 10.1177/1534484304263335
Bridger, R. S., Brasher, K., Dew, A., and Sparshott, K. (2011). Cumulative psychological strain and future strain in naval personnel: is executive function the elephant in the room? Ergonomics 54, 597–608. doi: 10.1080/00140139.2011.583361
Catania, G., Zanini, M., Hayter, M., Timmins, F., Dasso, N., Ottonello, G., et al. (2021). Lessons from italian front-line nurses’ experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic: a qualitative descriptive study. J. Nurs. Manage. 29, 404–411. doi: 10.1111/jonm.13194
Chan-Serafin, S., Brief, A. P., and George, J. M. (2013). Perspective-how does religion matter and why? Religion and the organizational sciences. Organ. Sci. 24, 1585–1600. doi: 10.1287/orsc.1120.0797
Chirico, F. (2021). Spirituality to cope with COVID-19 pandemic, climate change and future global challenges. J. Health Soc. Sci. 6, 151–158.
Chirico, F., and Ferrari, G. (2021). Role of the workplace in implementing mental health interventions for high-risk groups among the working age population after the COVID-19 pandemic. J. Health Soc. Sci. 6, 145–150.
Chirico, F., Ferrari, G., Nucera, G., Szarpak, L., Crescenzo, P., and Ilesanmi, O. (2021b). Prevalence of anxiety, depression, burnout syndrome, and mental health disorders among healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: a rapid umbrella review of systematic reviews. J. Health Soc. Sci. 6, 209–220.
Chirico, F., Crescenzo, P., Sacco, A., Riccò, M., Ripa, S., Nucera, G., et al. (2021a). Prevalence of burnout syndrome among Italian volunteers of the red cross: a cross-sectional study. Ind. Health 59, 117–127. doi: 10.2486/indhealth.2020-0246
Choi, H. M., Mohammad, A. A., and Kim, W. G. (2019). Understanding hotel frontline employees’ emotional intelligence, emotional labor, job stress, coping strategies and burnout. Int. J. Hospital. Manage. 82, 199–208.
Crescenzo, P. (2016). An ancient theory for a current problem. [review of the book healthy work: stress, productivity and the reconstruction of working life, by R.A. Karasek & T. Theorell]. J. Health Soc. Sci. 1, 287–292.
Crescenzo, P., Marciano, R., Maiorino, A., Denicolo, D., D’Ambrosi, D., Ferrara, I., et al. (2021). First COVID-19 wave in italy: coping strategies for the prevention and prediction of burnout syndrome (BOS) in voluntary psychologists employed in telesupport. Psychol. Hub. 38, 31–38.
Deligkaris, P., Panagopoulou, E., Montgomery, A. J., and Masoura, E. (2014). Job burnout and cognitive functioning: a systematic review. Work & stress 28, 107–123.
Demerouti, E., and Bakker, A. B. (2011). The job demands-resources model: challenges for future research. SA J. Industr. Psychol. 37, 01–09.
Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., and Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The job demands-resources model of burnout. J. Appl. Psychol. 86:499.
Diamantopoulos, A., Sarstedt, M., Fuchs, C., Wilczynski, P., and Kaiser, S. (2012). Guidelines for choosing between multi-item and single-item scales for construct measurement: a predictive validity perspective. J. Acad. Mark. Sci. 40, 434–449.
Dijkstra, T. K., and Henseler, J. (2015). Consistent partial least squares path modeling. MIS Quart. 39, 297–316. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00174
Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., and Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. Am. J. Theor. Appl. Stat. 5, 1–4. doi: 10.6224/JN.61.3.105
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A. G., and Buchner, A. (2007). G* power 3: a flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behav. Res. Methods 39, 175–191. doi: 10.3758/bf03193146
Fontaine, R. (2018). Developing spiritual intelligence: some new evidence. Int. J. Islamic Manage. Bus. 7, 95–107.
Fox, K. E., Johnson, S. T., Berkman, L. F., Sianoja, M., Soh, Y., Kubzansky, L. D., et al. (2021). Organisational-and group-level workplace interventions and their effect on multiple domains of worker well-being: a systematic review. Work Stress. doi: 10.1080/02678373.2021.1969476
Grandey, A. A. (2003). When “the show must go on”: surface acting and deep acting as determinants of emotional exhaustion and peer-rated service delivery. Acad. Manage. J. 46, 86–96. doi: 10.5465/30040678
Grandey, A. A., and Gabriel, A. S. (2015). Emotional labor at a crossroads: where do we go from here? Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2, 323–349. doi: 10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032414-111400
Grandey, A. A., and Melloy, R. C. (2017). The state of the heart: emotional labor as emotion regulation reviewed and revised. J. Occupat. Health Psychol. 22:407. doi: 10.1037/ocp0000067
Hair, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., and Sarstedt, M. (2017). A Primer on Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hair, J. F., Risher, J. J., Sarstedt, M., and Ringle, C. M. (2019). When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM. Eur. Bus. Rev. 31, 2–24. doi: 10.1108/EBR-11-2018-0203
Halbesleben, J. R., Neveu, J. P., Paustian-Underdahl, S. C., and Westman, M. (2014). Getting to the “COR” understanding the role of resources in conservation of resources theory. J. Manage. 40, 1334–1364.
Henseler, J., Dijkstra, T. K., Sarstedt, M., Ringle, C. M., Diamantopoulos, A., Straub, D. W., et al. (2014). Common beliefs and reality about PLS: comments on rönkkö and evermann (2013). Organiz. Res. Methods 17, 182–209.
Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., and Sarstedt, M. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. J. Acad. Mark. Sci. 43, 115–135.
Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., and Sinkovics, R. R. (2009). “The use of partial least squares path modeling in international marketing,” in New Challenges to International Marketing, eds R. R. Sinkovics and P. N. Ghauri (Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited).
Hobfoll, S. E., Halbesleben, J., Neveu, J.-P., and Westman, M. (2018). Conservation of resources in the organizational context: the reality of resources and their consequences. Ann. Rev. Organiz. Psychol. Organiz. Behav. 5, 103–128. doi: 10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104640
Hoseinabadi, T. S., Kakhki, S., Teimori, G., and Nayyeri, S. (2020). Burnout and its influencing factors between frontline nurses and nurses from other wards during the outbreak of coronavirus disease-COVID-19-in Iran. Invest. Y Educ. Enfermeria 38:e3. doi: 10.17533/udea.iee.v38n2e03
Houghton, J. D., Neck, C. P., and Krishnakumar, S. (2016). The what, why, and how of spirituality in the workplace revisited: a 14-year update and extension. J. Manage. Spiritual. Relig. 13, 177–205. doi: 10.1080/14766086.2016.1185292
Hülsheger, U. R., and Schewe, A. F. (2011). On the costs and benefits of emotional labor: a meta-analysis of three decades of research. J. Occup. Health Psychol. 16, 361–389. doi: 10.1037/a0022876
Isoard-Gautheur, S., Ginoux, C., Gerber, M., and Sarrazin, P. (2019). The stress–burnout relationship: examining the moderating effect of physical activity and intrinsic motivation for off-job physical activity. Workplace Health Safety 67, 350–360. doi: 10.1177/2165079919829497
Jeung, D. Y., Kim, C., and Chang, S. J. (2018). Emotional labor and burnout: a review of the literature. Yonsei Med. J. 59, 187–193. doi: 10.3349/ymj.2018.59.2.187
Jordan, P. J., and Troth, A. C. (2020). Common method bias in applied settings: the dilemma of researching in organizations. Austr. J. Manage. 45, 3–14.
Jöreskog, K. G. (1971). Simultaneous factor analysis in several populations. Psychometrika 36, 409–426. doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-6-26
Kackin, O., Ciydem, E., Aci, O. S., and Kutlu, F. Y. (2021). Experiences and psychosocial problems of nurses caring for patients diagnosed with COVID-19 in turkey: a qualitative study. Int. J. Soc. Psychiatry 67, 158–167. doi: 10.1177/0020764020942788
Kammeyer-Mueller, J. D., Rubenstein, A. L., Long, D. M., Odio, M. A., Buckman, B. R., Zhang, Y., et al. (2013). A meta-analytic structural model of dispositonal affectivity and emotional labor. Personnel Psychol. 66, 47–90. doi: 10.1111/peps.12009
Karimi, Z., Fereidouni, Z., Behnammoghadam, M., Alimohammadi, N., Mousavizadeh, A., Salehi, T., et al. (2020). The lived experience of nurses caring for patients with COVID-19 in Iran: a phenomenological study. Risk Manage. Healthcare Policy 13:1271. doi: 10.2147/RMHP.S258785
Kim, J. S. (2020). Emotional labor strategies, stress, and burnout among hospital nurses: a path analysis. J. Nurs. Scholarship 52, 105–112. doi: 10.1111/jnu.12532
Kock, N. (2015). Common method bias in PLS-SEM: a full collinearity assessment approach. Int. J. Collab. 11, 1–10. doi: 10.4018/ijec.2015100101
Kumar, V., and Kumar, S. (2014). Workplace spirituality as a moderator in relation between stress and health: an exploratory empirical assessment. Int. Rev. Psychiatry 26, 344–351. doi: 10.3109/09540261.2014.924909
Larson, R. B. (2019). Controlling social desirability bias. Int. J. Mark. Res. 61, 534–547. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0243384
Lata, M., and Chaudhary, R. (2020). Dark triad and instigated incivility: the moderating role of workplace spirituality. Personal. Indiv. Diff. 166:110090. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2020.110090
Lee, L., and Madera, J. M. (2019). Faking it or feeling it: the emotional displays of surface and deep acting on stress and engagement. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag. 31, 1744–1762. doi: 10.1108/IJCHM-05-2018-0405
Li, J., Wong, I. A., and Kim, W. G. (2017). Does mindfulness reduce emotional exhaustion? A multilevel analysis of emotional labor among casino employees. Int. J. Hosp. Manag. 64, 21–30. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhm.2017.03.008
Melamed, S., Ugarten, U., Shirom, A., Kahana, L., Lerman, Y., and Froom, P. (1999). Chronic burnout, somatic arousal and elevated salivary cortisol levels. J. Psychosomatic Res. 46, 591–598. doi: 10.1016/s0022-3999(99)00007-0
Milliman, J., Czaplewski, A. J., and Ferguson, J. (2003). Workplace spirituality and employee work attitudes: an exploratory empirical assessment. J. Organiz. Change Manage. 16, 426–447. doi: 10.1186/s12913-016-1423-5
Nemati, M., Ebrahimi, B., and Nemati, F. (2021). Assessment of Iranian nurses’ knowledge and anxiety toward COVID-19 during the current outbreak in Iran. Arch. Clin. Infect. Dis. 15:e102848.
Ogunsola, K. O. (2018). Servant leadership: developing an Islamic performance appraisal instrument for muslim managers. Malaysian Manage. Rev. 53, 55–76.
Ogunsola, K. O., Fontaine, R. A. H., and Jan, M. T. (2020). Impact of surface acting and deep acting techniques on teachers’ organizational commitment. PSU Res. Rev. 4, 61–79. doi: 10.1108/PRR-10-2019-0031
Ortega, E., Ramirez-Baena, L., la Fuente-Solana, D., Emilia, I., Vargas, C., and Gómez-Urquiza, J. L. (2018). Gender, marital status, and children as risk factors for burnout in nurses: a meta-analytic study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 15:2102. doi: 10.3390/ijerph15102102
Pieper, C., Schröer, S., and Eilerts, A. L. (2019). Evidence of workplace interventions—a systematic review of systematic reviews. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 16:3553. doi: 10.3390/ijerph16193553
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., and Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. J. Appl. Psychol. 88:879. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
Pratt, M. G., and Ashforth, B. E. (2003). “Fostering meaningfulness in working and at work,” in Positive Organizational Scholarship: Foundations of a New Discipline, eds K. S. Cameron, J. E. Dutton, and R. E. Quinn (San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler), 309–327.
Rafaeli, A., Erez, A., Ravid, S., Derfler-Rozin, R., Treister, D. E., and Scheyer, R. (2012). When customers exhibit verbal aggression, employees pay cognitive costs. J. Appl. Psychol. 97:931. doi: 10.1037/a0028559
Rego, A., and Pina e Cunha, M. (2008). Workplace spirituality and organizational commitment: an empirical study. J. Organ. Change Manage. 21, 53–75. doi: 10.1108/09534810810847039
Richards, J. M., and Gross, J. J. (2000). Emotion regulation and memory: the cognitive costs of keeping one’s cool. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 79:410. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.79.3.410
Rydmark, I., Wahlberg, K., Ghatan, P. H., Modell, S., Nygren, A., Ingvar, M., et al. (2006). Neuroendocrine, cognitive and structural imaging characteristics of women on longterm sickleave with job stress-induced depression. Biol. Psychiatry 60, 867–873. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.04.029
Saks, A. M. (2011). Workplace spirituality and employee engagement. J. Manage. Spirit. Relig. 8, 317–340. doi: 10.1080/14766086.2011.630170
Schaufeli, W. B., and Taris, T. W. (2014). “A critical review of the job demands-resources model: implications for improving work and health,” in Bridging Occupational, Organizational and Public Health, eds G. F. Bauer and O. Hämmig (Dordrecht: Springer), 43–68. doi: 10.1007/978-94-007-5640-3_4
Shamsi, A., and Peyravi, H. (2020). Nursing shortage, a different challenge in Iran: a systematic review. Med. J. Islamic Republic Iran 34:8. doi: 10.34171/mjiri.34.8
Shirom, A. (2003). “Job-related burnout: a review,” in Handbook of Occupational Health Psychology, eds J. C. Quick and L. E. Tetrick (American Psychological Association), 245–264. doi: 10.1037/10474-012
Shirom, A., and Melamed, S. (2006). A comparison of the construct validity of two burnout measures in two groups of professionals. Int. J. Stress Manage. 13:176. doi: 10.1037/1072-5245.13.2.176
Spurlock, D. Jr. (2020). The nursing shortage and the future of nursing education is in our hands. J. Nurs. Educ. 59, 303–304. doi: 10.3928/01484834-20200520-01
Taherdoost, H. (2019). What is the Best Response Scale for Survey and Questionnaire Design; Review of Different Lengths of Rating Scale/Attitude Scale/Likert Scale. Available online at: https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02557308/document (accessed February 9, 2022).
Theodosius, C., Koulouglioti, C., Kersten, P., and Rosten, C. (2021). Collegial surface acting emotional labour, burnout and intention to leave in novice and pre-retirement nurses in the united kingdom: a cross-sectional study. Nurs. Open 8, 463–472. doi: 10.1002/nop2.649
Tongco, M. D. C. (2007). Purposive sampling as a tool for informant selection. Ethnobot. Res. Appl. 5, 147–158. doi: 10.17348/era.5.0.147-158
Uy, M. A., Lin, K. J., and Ilies, R. (2017). Is it better to give or receive? The role of help in buffering the depleting effects of surface acting. Acad. Manage. J. 60, 1442–1461.
Wang, C. J. (2020). Managing emotional labor for service quality: a cross-level analysis among hotel employees. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 88:102396. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhm.2019.102396
Warttig, S. L., Forshaw, M. J., South, J., and White, A. K. (2013). New, normative, english-sample data for the short form perceived stress scale (PSS-4). J. Health Psychol. 18, 1617–1628. doi: 10.1177/1359105313508346
Weinberg, F. J., and Locander, W. B. (2014). Advancing workplace spiritual development: a dyadic mentoring approach. Leadersh. Q. 25, 391–408. doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.10.009
Xanthopoulou, D., Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., and Schaufeli, W. B. (2007). The role of personal resources in the job demands-resources model. Int. J. Stress Manage. 14, 121–141. doi: 10.1037/1072-5245.14.2.121
Yagil, D. (2012). The mediating role of engagement and burnout in the relationship between employees’ emotion regulation strategies and customer outcomes. Eur. J. Work Organiz. Psychol. 21, 150–168. doi: 10.1080/1359432x.2011.557549
Yeung, D. Y., and Wong, S. (2020). Effects of cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression on daily work-related outcomes: comparison between younger and older chinese workers. Int. J. Psychol. 55, 983–994. doi: 10.1002/ijop.12661
Zhang, Y., Zhang, L., Lei, H., Yue, Y., and Zhu, J. (2016). Lagged effect of daily surface acting on subsequent day’s fatigue. Serv. Indust. J. 36, 809–826.
Keywords: surface acting, job stress, cognitive weariness, spirituality, nurses, sense of community, COVID-19, Iran
Citation: Sousan A, Farmanesh P and Zargar P (2022) The Effect of Surface Acting on Job Stress and Cognitive Weariness Among Healthcare Workers During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Exploring the Role of Sense of Community. Front. Psychol. 13:826156. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.826156
Received: 30 November 2021; Accepted: 24 January 2022;
Published: 10 March 2022.
Edited by:
Daniela Acquadro Maran, University of Turin, ItalyReviewed by:
Pietro Crescenzo, Italian Red Cross, Volunteer Military Corps, ItalyCynthia D. Kelly, Independent Researcher, Atlanta, GA, United States
Copyright © 2022 Sousan, Farmanesh and Zargar. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Pouya Zargar, p.zargar@hotmail.com