Yanhua Su
Wenyan Sun2†
Yiqun Gan
Qian Zhu
Guoyan Liu
Hui Tang
Zhijun Liu- 1Center for Mental Health Research in School of Management, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
- 2Children’s Hospital Affiliated to Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- 3School of Psychological and Cognitive Science, Peking University, Beijing, China
- 4School of Medical Information Engineering, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
- 5School of Education, Zhaoqing University, Zhaoqing, China
Previous research has indicated that parenting factors affect the risk of maladaptive psychological outcomes (e.g., aggression, depression, or suicidal ideation), and that positive parenting is a prospective risk factor for maladaptive psychological outcomes. However, the mechanisms underlying the relationships between positive parenting, mindfulness, and maladaptive psychological outcomes remain unknown, as do the processes that mediate the effect of positive parenting on maladaptive psychological outcomes in adolescents. The objective of the present study was to investigate the longitudinal relationship between positive parenting, mindfulness, and maladaptive psychological outcomes in middle school students, as well as the mediating effect of mindfulness in the relationships between positive parenting and depression, aggression, and suicidal ideation. In this study, 386 middle school children (aged 12–16) were tested three times over a period of 6 months. Positive parenting was assessed at Time 1, mindfulness at Time 2, and depression, aggression, and suicidal ideation at Time 3. Using structural equation modeling, positive parenting was revealed to be longitudinally associated with mindfulness and negatively associated with maladaptive psychological outcomes. More crucially, mindfulness mediated the relationship between positive parenting and maladaptive psychological outcomes. This research provides important insights into how to effectively decrease adolescent maladaptive psychological outcomes and highlights the importance of teaching mindfulness to youths.
Introduction
Adolescence is a significant time of growth during which mental health issues can emerge (Polanczyk et al., 2015). The physiological and psychological changes that occur during puberty can trigger major public health problems, such as suicidal behaviors (suicidal ideation or suicide attempts; Xiao et al., 2019; Xu et al., 2022), depression, and aggression (Achenbach, 1991; Achenbach and Edelbrock, 1991; Reitz et al., 2005; Graber, 2013; Archana and Kumar, 2022). Worldwide, suicide is a serious public health problem and a leading cause of death and disability, especially among adolescents (McLoughlin et al., 2015; Xiao et al., 2019; Xu et al., 2022). Suicidal ideation, a key step in the suicide process, is a significant risk factor for youth suicide (Cluver et al., 2015; Franklin et al., 2017). Suicidal ideation is prevalent among Chinese adolescents, with rates ranging between 15.7% (N = 54,640) and 18.2% (N = 20, 475) (Guo et al., 2019; Xiao et al., 2019; Xu et al., 2022). Additionally, depression is significant global public health issue (Ferrari et al., 2013), with incidence rates ranging from 2 to 7% in children and adolescents (Alsaad et al., 2018). Depression, which has been associated with decreased academic performance, family problems, drug abuse, and decreased life expectancy (Murray et al., 2015), is frequently accompanied by a high suicide risk (Murray et al., 2015; Apter and Gvion, 2016). Aggression is defined as behavior intended to hurt oneself or others (Siever, 2008), and is another public health issue, with a frequency of 25% in China (Peng et al., 2022). Several studies have noted that adolescents with more aggressive behavioral tendencies and patterns are more likely to have poorer physical and mental health, scholastic performance, personality development, and social adaption than others (Gini and Pozzoli, 2013; Gini et al., 2013).
Due to the prevalence of aggression, depression, and suicidal ideation in adolescents, research on maladaptive psychological outcomes in the teenage population has frequently concentrated on identifying their causes (Dumais et al., 2005; Augsberger et al., 2018; Lee and Ham, 2018). Increasing evidence has demonstrated that positive parenting can contribute to the prevention of these problems in Western cultural contexts (Boeldt et al., 2012; Smokowski et al., 2015). Despite the extensive reports from Western countries that positive parenting is associated with improved child and adolescent psychosocial and developmental outcomes, the majority of these studies have tested bivariate relationships rather than mediational models, and have not used longitudinal data. According to Social Emotional Learning (SEL) theory (Tolan et al., 2016), positive parenting can enhance children’s social and emotional skills, and indirectly foster the development of social-emotional competencies, such as mindfulness, in adolescents. Thus, with a focus on prevention, we used longitudinal methods to investigate the mediating effect of adolescents’ mindfulness in the associations between positive parenting, depression, aggression, and suicidal ideation.
While the relationships between positive parenting and depression, aggression, and suicidal ideation have been well-documented in Western countries (Chen and Raine, 2018; Kingsbury et al., 2020), relatively little research has been conducted on this topic in a Chinese environment. A Chinese adage states that “Beating and reprimanding are the signs of love.” This demonstrates that, in the context of traditional Chinese culture, controlling or autonomy-restrictive parental practices (e.g., harsh parenting behaviors) are more normative in China (Liu et al., 2021) than in Western contexts. Indeed, these practices are still adopted by approximately 50% of Chinese parents (Wang and Liu, 2014) and thus seem normal and appropriate in the eyes of Chinese adolescents (Chao, 1994; Cheung and Pomerantz, 2011). Shek (2007) found that although Chinese parents are accustomed to scolding their children, screaming at them, and even punishing them for failing to achieve their expectations, Chinese adolescents do not necessary perceive these parenting practices as harsh. It is still unknown whether the positive parenting in the context of Chinese culture will have the same effect as that in Western countries. Given these cultural understandings, it is worth investigating further the relationship between positive parenting and maladaptive psychological outcomes in a Chinese context.
The importance of positive parenting in preventing aggression, depression, and suicidal ideation
Many studies have shown that parental practices are crucial contributors to the emergence and maintenance of adolescents’ mental and behavioral problems, including depression (Schwartz et al., 2014), aggression (Hentges et al., 2018), and suicide (Borkowski et al., 2001; Maccoby, 2001; Fotti et al., 2006). According to the family system theory, families are not just groups of people living together, but rather multilevel systems in which the parents play essential roles as both leaders and implementers (Bowen, 1974). Therefore, everyone, especially adolescents, is affected by any change in any element of the system. Following this, then, positive parenting behaviors have been hypothesized to decrease youth depression, aggression, and suicidal ideation (You and Lim, 2015; Kingsbury et al., 2020).
Positive parenting refers to warm, supportive parental behaviors that demonstrate acceptance, praise, and responsibility, including but not limited to nurturing, instructing, listening, expressing approbation, and providing emotional support (Russell, 1996; Chronis et al., 2007; Boeldt et al., 2012; Kingsbury et al., 2020). In addition, any positive component that stems from specific parenting behaviors and beliefs and enters into the parenting environment can be considered a part of positive parenting (Roskam, 2015). There is considerable evidence that positive parenting is a key buffer against the emergence of depression, aggression (Pinquart, 2017a,b; Nieto-Casado et al., 2022), and suicidal ideation (Kingsbury et al., 2020). Smokowski et al. (2015) found that positive parenting was negatively associated with depression. In another study, Jakobsen et al. (2012) revealed that adolescents who reported parental support had less severe anxiety and depressive symptoms. A significant association between positive parenting and aggressive behavior has also been reported (Chen and Raine, 2018). In particular, aggressive behavior was more common in children who had been exposed to negative parenting styles than in children who had been exposed to positive parenting styles (Lei et al., 2018). More importantly, a substantive body of empirical research has asserted that a supportive family environment could defend against the stresses that lead to suicidal ideation and actions in young people (Zhang and Jin, 1996; Lai and McBride-Chang, 2001). Indeed, family support and connectedness has been shown to reduce the likelihood of suicidal thoughts and behaviors (Sharaf et al., 2009; Purcell et al., 2012).
According to several cross-sectional studies, the presence of parental warmth (Machell et al., 2016), sufficient autonomy support (Shpigel et al., 2012), and efficient communication (Mark et al., 2013) are protective factors against the formation of suicidal thoughts in adolescents. In a more recent longitudinal study, Kingsbury et al. (2020) found that positive parenting was protective against depression, anxiety, and physical and social aggression. Taken together, the evidence points to a strong negative correlation between positive parenting and maladaptive psychological outcomes such as depression, aggression, and suicidal ideation (Purcell et al., 2012; Smokowski et al., 2015; Pinquart, 2017a,b; Chen and Raine, 2018; Nair et al., 2020).
The mediating role of mindfulness
The SEL theory is a model of positive development (Tolan et al., 2016) that describes the process of helping people acquire the “capacity to understand, control, and express one’s social and emotional aspects of one’s life” (Elias et al., 1997). The SEL model (Tolan et al., 2016) holds that positive parenting can cultivate social and emotional abilities that directly or indirectly contribute to competency development in adolescents by improving the environments that support the development of these abilities in adolescents. Indeed, some studies have shown that positive parenting plays a significant part in the healthy development of adolescents because it supports the acquisition of skills, promotes self-acceptance, boosts self-esteem, and facilitates the formation of secure attachments (Smalls, 2009; Elmore and Gaylord-Harden, 2013). Other studies have shown that children who have secure, stable relationships with their caregivers are also more likely to acquire a greater capacity for mindfulness (Shaver et al., 2007; Pepping et al., 2015; Lucas-Thompson et al., 2021; Nieto-Casado et al., 2022). Parent–child interactions that are marked by warmth, support, and sensitivity are more inclined to foster a secure attachment pattern in the child (Bowlby, 1973). Moreover, those with more secure attachment patterns also tend to be more mindful (Shaver et al., 2007; Sharaf et al., 2009; Pepping et al., 2015; Melen et al., 2017). According to Ryan et al. (2007), this sense of security can help to create the foundation for the maturity of awareness as well as contextual attention. Conversely, difficulties developing mindfulness have been associated with the emergence of an insecure attachment style, which is facilitated by unresponsive or inconsistent relationships between parents and their children (Bowlby, 1973; Pepping et al., 2013; Stevenson et al., 2017).
The association between parenting style and children’s behavioral adjustment level has been shown to be mediated by children’s behavioral and attentional regulation abilities (Cheah et al., 2009). As such, there is value in exploring mindfulness as a potential competence of adolescents, since it appears that having a loving, autonomous, and communicative family environment during childhood facilitates the development of mindfulness (Ryan et al., 2007), and this development persists into adolescence (Galla et al., 2020). This raises the possibility that adolescents who experience more positive parenting possess stronger skills in mindfulness.
Mindfulness is described as a state of consciousness that is developed through paying attention to the present moment with a non-judgmental attitude (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). A substantial corpus of literature supports the notion that mindfulness promotes health by shielding individuals against the adverse impacts of stress (Creswell and Lindsay, 2014), as well as suicidal thoughts and behaviors (Bentley et al., 2017; Per et al., 2022). There is growing evidence that mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) are sufficiently effective in enhancing positive emotions and reducing depression, suicidal ideation (Serpa et al., 2014), and aggression (Fix and Fix, 2013). For instance, Zhu et al. (2021) discovered that increasing mindfulness training was associated with low level of depression. Recently, a meta-analysis indicated that MBIs moderately reduced suicidal ideation (Schmelefske et al., 2020) and other psychological outcomes linked to suicide (e.g., depression; Witt et al., 2019). MBIs may also be effective in reducing aggression (Peters et al., 2015; Gillions et al., 2019). For instance, Heppner et al. (2008) found a negative correlation between mindfulness and self-reported aggressiveness, whereby increasing people’s mindfulness in an experimental setting resulted in less aggressive behavior. Similar to positive parenting, mindfulness has been shown to prospectively and robustly predict anxiety, depression, aggression, and social impairment (Williams, 2008; Fix and Fix, 2013; Bajaj et al., 2016; Westphal et al., 2021). Considering previous findings, it is plausible that mindfulness could mediate the link between positive parenting and maladaptive psychological outcomes such as aggression, depression, and suicidal ideation.
Although few studies have directly demonstrated the association between positive parenting and mindfulness, a recent study by Nieto-Casado et al. (2022) found that mindfulness partially mediated the association between parental competency and anxious-depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation. The authors speculated that this mediation effect was due to the fact that mindfulness inhibits the activation of dysfunctional thought patterns and maladaptive coping methods, which are common in individuals with anxious-depressive symptomatology. Based on the SEL model, positive parenting (i.e., the environment) may help individuals to develop skills in mindfulness (i.e., individual competence), which in turn reduce the likelihood of experiencing depression, aggression, and suicidal ideation. If so, it is reasonable to speculate that positive parenting could improve or cultivate mindfulness in adolescents, and, in turn, mindfulness could influence maladaptive psychological outcomes. Individual mindfulness could be promoted through the family environment, and thus decrease maladaptive psychological outcomes. However, considering the Western–Eastern cultural differences in parenting practices, further research into the associations between positive parenting and aggression, depression, and suicidal ideation in China is required. In addition, most studies into parenting style and adolescent maladaptive psychological outcomes have been cross-sectional, which cannot accurately reveal quasi-causal relationships between variables. The current study used a three-wave longitudinal method to explore the associations of positive parenting and mindfulness with maladaptive psychological outcomes in a sample of middle school adolescents.
We used a mediation model (Figure 1) to examine the intermediary effect of mindfulness on positive parenting and adolescent maladaptive psychological outcomes. Previous studies have found that socio-demographic factors (e.g., sex, age, household income, and education) are associated with suicidal ideation (Groleger et al., 2003; Grunbaum et al., 2004; Swahn and Bossarte, 2007; Kim et al., 2016; Cabello et al., 2020), depression (Mohammadi et al., 2019), and aggression (Stipek and Miles, 2008). To reduce endogeneity bias, we adjusted for the demographic variables of age, sex, and subjective social status. Based on the existing literature, the following hypotheses were made:
Hypothesis 1: Positive parenting positively predicts mindfulness.
Hypothesis 2: Positive parenting and mindfulness negatively predict adolescent suicidal ideation, depression, and aggression.
Hypothesis 3: The associations between positive parenting and suicidal ideation, depression, and aggression in adolescents are mediated by mindfulness.
Figure 1. A hypothetical model of the effects of overall positive parenting and mindfulness on aggression, depression, and suicidal ideation.
Materials and methods
Participants
This study employed a convenience sampling method to recruit middle school students from two schools in Henan Province, China. A total of 386 students self-reported their perceived positive parenting at Time 1 (T1; October, 2021), 385 students self-reported their mindfulness at Time 2 (T2; December, 2021), and 375 students self-reported their depression, aggression, and suicidal ideation at Time 3 (T3; February, 2022). Sample attrition was N = 11. Due to school transfers or incomplete responses, the excluded individuals could not be followed longitudinally. Of the final 375 participants, their average age was 13.48 ± 0.88 years at T1; 192 (51.2%) were male and 183 (48.8%) were female; 105 (28%) were in grade 7 and 270 (72%) in grade 8; 34 (9.1%) were only children and 341 (90.9%) were not.
Procedure
Signed informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to completion of the questionnaire, after approval had been granted by school principals. The students were informed that their participation would have no bearing on the educational options available to them in middle school, and that their participation was entirely voluntary. T1 data collection was performed in October 2021, when adolescents were in grades 7–8; data collection at T2 was in December 2021; and data collection at T3 was performed in February 2022, when students were still in the same grade as they were at T1.
Measures
The positive parenting subscale (time 1)
Positive parenting was measured using the 14-item Emotional Warmth subscale from the Chinese version of the Egna Minnen Beträffande Uppfostran, developed by Perris et al. (1980) and validated by Li et al. (2012). Seven items assess the father’s positive parenting (e.g., “My father showed with words and gestures that he liked me”) and seven items assess the mother’s positive parenting (e.g., “I felt that my mother was proud when I succeeded in something I had undertaken”). All items were rated by participants on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (almost never) to 4 (always), with higher overall scores indicating higher perceived positive parenting. In this investigation, the Cronbach’s α-value was 0.95.
The mindful attention and awareness scale (time 2)
Five questions from the Chinese Version of the Mindful Attention and Awareness Scale (Deng et al., 2012), which was created by Brown and Ryan (2003) and modified by Hülsheger et al. (2013), were used to assess mindfulness. A sample item is “I find myself doing things without paying attention.” Each item was scored on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (almost never) to 6. (always). Higher scores indicated greater mindfulness. In this investigation, the Cronbach’s α-value was 0.91.
The beck scale for suicidal ideation (time 3)
Adolescent suicidal ideation was measured using the Chinese version (Zhang and Brown, 2007) of the Beck Scale for Suicide Ideation (Beck and Steer, 1991). The scale consists of 19 self-report items, and participants are asked to rate each item on a 3-point scale. Higher scores indicate a greater tendency toward suicidal ideations. In this investigation, the Cronbach’s α-value was 0.90.
The patient health questionnaire (time 3)
Depression was measured using the Chinese version of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9; Wang et al., 2014), which is a widely used instrument and consists of nine items. Participants rated each item on 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 4 (nearly every day), on the basis of how much a symptom had bothered them over the last 2 weeks. The PHQ-9 has very high levels of both reliability and construct validity (Kroenke et al., 2001). In this investigation, the Cronbach’s α-value was 0.89.
The Chinese version of the Buss–Perry aggression questionnaire (time 3)
The Chinese version of the Buss–Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ) is a valid and accurate indicator of adolescent aggression that is based on empirical research (Maxwell, 2007). This self-report scale assesses the following four different dimensions of aggressive behavior: physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger, and hostility. All items are assessed on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all like me) to 5 (completely like me). Higher overall scores represent more aggression. In this investigation, the Cronbach’s α-value was 0.90.
Family socioeconomic status
Information on each participant’s family socioeconomic status (family SES; i.e., the annual family income, highest parental occupation, and highest educational level achieved by parents) was collected from adolescents using questions in line with the Program for International Student Assessment (OECD, 2012). The standard scores of these three variables were analyzed using principal component analysis, and the factor scores were saved as family SES scores. The family SES scores in this study ranged from −2.39 to 2.58, whereby higher scores indicated a higher family SES.
Data analyses
In the first step, we assessed bivariate Pearson’s correlation coefficients for the key variables. In the second step, we performed structural equation modeling with the maximum likelihood estimator (Muthén and Muthén, 1998-2017) to test our hypothetical model (see Figure 1). Given that there was a strong association between positive parenting of the father and mother, the overall positive parenting was calculated by combining the positive parenting items into two parcels using a domain-representative technique to prevent exaggerated measurement errors due to many latent variable items (Little et al., 2002). Similarly, the BPAQ and PHQ-9 items were grouped into three and four parcels, respectively, using a domain-representative technique (Little et al., 2002). A full information maximum likelihood estimator was used to address the missing data issue, which is the suggested strategy for dealing with missing random data (Enders, 2010). Sex (male = 1), age, and family SES were entered in the structural equation models as covariates. The comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) were used to assess the adequacy of the model. CFI and TLI values greater than 0.95 and RMSEA values less than 0.06 indicate a good model fit, whereas CFI and TLI values greater than 0.9 and RMSEA values less than 0.08 indicate a satisfactory model fit (Hu and Bentler, 1999; Marsh et al., 2005). In the third stage, we employed bootstrap techniques with 5,000 samples and 95% confidence intervals to examine various mediation effects (Shrout and Bolger, 2002).
Results
Associations between study variables
The means and standard deviations of all variables, as well as the bivariate correlations between variables, are reported in Table 1. Overall positive parenting was positively correlated with mindfulness (r = 0.28, p < 0.001), and both overall positive parenting and mindfulness were negatively correlated with suicidal ideation, depression, and aggression (r = −0.35 to −0.16, all p < 0.01).
Table 1. Descriptive statistics and correlations between variables.
Pathway analysis
The hypothetical model showed a good fit to the data (CFI = 0.977, TLI = 0.973, RMSEA = 0.039, 90% confidence interval = [0.030, 0.047]), and all factor loadings of the latent variables were significant and above 0.60. Sex, age, and family SES did not predict suicidal ideation, depression, or aggression. Figure 2 and Table 2 present the direct and indirect effects. Overall positive parenting positively predicted mindfulness (β = 0.29, p < 0.001), negatively predicted suicidal ideation (β = −0.26, p < 0.001) and depression (β = −0.12, p = 0.03), and did not significantly predict aggression (β = −0.06, p = 0.314). Mindfulness negatively predicted suicidal ideation (β = −0.18, p = 0.004), depression (β = −0.29, p < 0.001), and aggression (β = −0.37, p < 0.001). All the indirect effects of overall positive parenting on suicidal ideation (β = −0.05, p = 0.012), depression (β = −0.08, p = 0.001), and aggression (β = −0.11, p < 0.001) via mindfulness were significant, as zeros were present in the bias-corrected bootstrap 95% confidence intervals.
Figure 2. The longitudinal mediating role of mindfulness in the association between adolescent overall positive parenting, suicidal ideation, depression, and aggression, with standardized coefficients. Results of covariates (i.e., sex, age, and family SES) are not shown for the purpose of simplicity.
Table 2. Results of direct and indirect effects of the hypothetical model.
Discussion
While numerous studies have identified negative associations between positive parenting and depression, aggression, and suicidal ideation in adolescents, we know relatively little about the role of mindfulness as a mechanism underlying these relationships, particularly in a Chinese context. Furthermore, previous studies have generally been cross-sectional, which makes it difficult to make causal inference. The current study fills this gap in the literature by investigating whether mindfulness mediates the relationships between positive parenting and depression, aggression, and suicidal ideation. This is also the first study to take a longitudinal perspective in exploring this in a Chinese context. Several important and novel findings were revealed. First, positive parenting was positively associated with mindfulness longitudinally. Second, positive parenting and mindfulness were both negatively correlated with depression, aggression, and suicidal ideation. Moreover, mindfulness measured at T2 partially mediated the relationship between positive parenting at T1 and depression and suicidal ideation at T3, and fully mediated the relationship between positive parenting at T1 and aggression at T3.
Positive parenting positively predicts mindfulness
As the highlight of our study, positive parenting was positively correlated with mindfulness, as predicted in Hypothesis 1. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first investigation to show that positive parenting is correlated with mindfulness using a longitudinal study design. This finding is consistent with another study, which revealed that parental competency was positively associated with adolescent mindfulness (Nieto-Casado et al., 2022). Another study has suggested that the origins of mindful attention and awareness lie in relationships between caregivers and their children (Ryan et al., 2007). According to the family system theory (Bowen, 1974), positive parenting is a family environment resource that can support adolescents’ development of personal competences and help children to establish healthy attachment bonds with their caregivers. The family system theory highlights the significance of the family system for the development of mindfulness, and suggests that mindfulness may be influenced, at least in part, by family relationships and experiences (Bowen, 1974). For example, dispositional mindfulness was lowest among adolescents who reported frequent/intense interparental conflict and lowest-quality relationships with their mothers (Lucas-Thompson et al., 2021). In line with this, the experience of positive, supportive warmth from caregivers has been reported to create a sense of security that helps adolescents develop an attentiveness to their own experiences (Parker et al., 2015), which assists the development of a set of cognitive-emotional patterns that promote open, receptive, non-judgmental awareness and attentiveness to whatever circumstances may present themselves (Caldwell and Shaver, 2015). Recently, Lan (2022) reported that parental warmth is more likely to promote positive parent–child connections characterized by affectionate and cooperative interactions. Additionally, children who grow up in warm and supportive families are more likely to internalize their parents’ values, which in turn enhances their capacity to self-regulate (Carlo et al., 2011; Ngai et al., 2018). Moreover, positive parenting, which entails a balanced approach to offering warmth, respect, autonomy, communication, and support without disregarding acceptable degrees of control and regulation, has been found to increase children’s level of adjustment competence (Schofield et al., 2014). In other words, positive parenting facilitates the development of positive relationships with adolescents, which in turn helps to cultivate mindfulness abilities.
Positive parenting and mindfulness negatively predict adolescent suicidal ideation and depression
The correlation results showed that positive parenting and mindfulness were both longitudinally negatively associated with depression and suicidal ideation, while only mindfulness was negatively associated with aggression longitudinally, which supports Hypothesis 2, as well as the results of earlier studies (Bamaca-Colbert et al., 2018; Zhu et al., 2021). Some studies have found that positive parenting is linked to a reduced risk of depression (Feng et al., 2009; Clayborne et al., 2021), suicidal ideation, and behavior (Lai and McBride-Chang, 2001), and aggressive behavior (Chen and Raine, 2018) in adolescents. A negative relationship between mindfulness and depression has also been reported in several studies (Christopher and Gilbert, 2010; Bajaj et al., 2016; Kircaburun et al., 2019; Al Harbi et al., 2021; Sharma and Kumra, 2022). Furthermore, a growing body of research has shown that MBIs can effectively reduce depression and aggression (Kriakous et al., 2021; Rezakhani and Vakili, 2021) in both clinical and non-clinical populations (Williams et al., 2000; Williams, 2008).
Nonetheless, our results do not fully support Hypothesis 2, in that we found no direct effect of positive parenting on adolescent aggression. However, this does not refute the notion that positive parenting affects the development of aggression. It is worth noting that previous studies on the relationship between positive parenting and aggression have produced mixed results, including non-significant results in cross-cultural studies. For example, in a juvenile sample of 11–12 year olds (51% boys, 80% African Americans), Chen and Raine (2018) found a negative relationship between positive parenting and aggression among those who matured early, but not among those who matured on time/late. However, another study presented different results, whereby positive parenting was unrelated to aggression in early maturing girls (mean age = 11.25 years; Mrug et al., 2008). Moreover, Yaman et al. (2010) found no main effect of positive parenting on the prediction of toddler aggression. As suggested by meta-analysis findings from Rothbaum and Weisz (1994), the relationship between parenting quality and child aggression may be weaker in toddlers and preschoolers than in older children. In addition, a separate meta-analysis found that the association between positive parenting and reduced aggression was strongest among college students, moderate among seniors, and minimal among middle and elementary school students in China (Lei et al., 2018). The reasons for these contradictory findings could lie in the use of different instruments for measuring outcomes, or in the demographic makeup of the study population (Lei et al., 2018).
There are various explanations for the present result of no direct effect of positive parenting on adolescent aggression. As opposed to depression and suicidal ideation, the aggression we measured, which includes physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger, and hostility, was related to interpersonal interactions. First, the effect size of correlations between positive parenting and aggression was small (r = −0.16, p < 0.01). Given that mindfulness mediated the relationship between positive parenting and aggression, positive parenting had no direct influence on adolescent aggression. Second, there may be some factors (peer friendships, the environment, etc.) that account for the indirect relationship between positive parenting and aggression. For instance, Hartup and Stevens (1997) posited that the influence that parents exert over children’s behavior decreases as peer relationships and friendships grow more salient and relationships with parents become less important on entering adolescence. Third, individual characteristics (such as emotional regulation or hostile attribution biases) could influence the indirect relationship between positive parenting and aggression (Kawabata et al., 2011). This result may also be explained by the idea that positive parenting promotes socio-cognitive traits such as emotion management, self-confidence, and social competence, all of which can help to prevent the emergence and maintenance of aggression (Kawabata et al., 2011). For instance, previous studies have indicated that children who are exposed to positive parenting are provided with a socializing situation that promotes their ability to regulate emotions and social competence, both of which may be linked to a lower incidence of aggressive behavior (Parke et al., 1992; Zhou et al., 2002).
Adolescent mindfulness mediates the relationship between positive parenting and suicidal ideation, depression, and aggression
We found that mindfulness mediated the effect of positive parenting on adolescent depression, aggression, and suicidal ideation, which supports Hypothesis 3. More specifically, the mediation effect was only partial due to the direct effects of positive parenting on depression and suicidal ideation in the structural model. However, mindfulness completely mediated the association between positive parenting and aggression. Mindfulness can be defined as an awareness of our thoughts, feelings, physical sensations, and surrounding environment on a moment-to-moment basis. Being mindful is associated with openness, non-judgment, awareness, friendliness, acceptance, compassion, and kindness (Baer et al., 2019), and can reduce rumination and the frequency of both depressive symptoms (Moreira and Canavarro, 2018) and suicidal outcomes (Hargus et al., 2010; Nieto-Casado et al., 2022). Recent work has demonstrated that mindfulness partially mediates the correlations between parental competence and both anxious-depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation in adolescents (Nieto-Casado et al., 2022). The SEL model can be used to explain the role of mindfulness as a mediator in the association between positive parenting and adolescent depression, aggression, and suicidal ideation identified in this study (Tolan et al., 2016). During parent–child interactions, a supportive, encouraging, and warm parent is more likely to model sensitivity and attentiveness to the adolescent, which can create a safe and supportive environment that conveys to the adolescent that they are loved and accepted (World Health Organization [WHO], 2007; Juffer et al., 2012). Adolescents who feel that their parents accept them are more inclined to interact with the world in a more mindful way. Mindfulness can foster a more profound and long-lasting awareness of being engaged with whatever is occurring in the present moment, with a recognition that every moment, whether positive or negative, is temporary and will be promptly replaced by a new experience (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). To put it another way, mindfulness promotes greater acceptance and less reactivity to whatever is taking place on physical, cognitive, affective, and behavioral levels, and also increases flexibility and accuracy in one’s perception about what is taking place in the present moment (Duncan et al., 2009). From this perspective, adolescents who have higher levels of mindfulness are better able to remain open and responsive to their current negative experiences rather than judging, ignoring, or minimizing them, which in turn makes them less prone to suffer depression or suicidal ideation (Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Wallace and Shapiro, 2006; Coffey et al., 2010).
The current study also found an indirect association between positive parenting and aggression, which was fully mediated by mindfulness in adolescents. A key aspect of mindfulness is being aware of one’s own impulses and realizing that they are transient, which strengthens an individual’s ability to resist action until the impulse has passed (Katz and Toner, 2013). This means that adolescents with high levels of mindfulness are more likely to have a deeper comprehension of their cognitive and behavioral processes, and are able to learn to respond more intentionally and consciously rather than reactively or automatically (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). In this case, flexibility and awareness can help them see other possibilities or options, rather than seeing aggression as the only viable response. Some studies have painted a negative picture of Chinese parenting, characterizing it as overbearing and even hostile (Chao, 1994). However, adolescents living in families with positive parenting may learn to regulate their negative emotions in adaptive ways by observing their parents’ behavior. This can result in more psychosocial adjustment, which may decrease the likelihood of mental health problems.
These findings are largely congruent with SEL theory (Tolan et al., 2016), which argues that parents can have long-lasting positive impacts on their children. Namely, adolescents cumulatively learn more self-awareness, self-management, and relationship skills from their parents’ positive support, which they are able to put into practice as they gain more freedom to act. We speculated that when children feel that they are cared for, encouraged, supported, and accepted through their parents’ behavioral style, they foster the capacity to accept themselves and their own emotional state. In other words, positive parenting may help to cultivate mindfulness in adolescents, and this mindfulness could mitigate depression, aggression, and suicidal ideation.
Implications and recommendations
First, evidence from this study bolsters the public health emphasis on improving and encouraging positive parenting skills for better adolescent mental health. The present findings suggest that it is necessary to develop a positive parent–child relationship to foster positive adolescent development. Hence, schools or governments could offer education or training that provides parents with information about positive parenting, as well as the skills they need to parent effectively, which would promote positive development and reduce negative outcomes for youths. The second important point is that our model’s emphasis on the importance of mindfulness suggests that positive parenting practices can cultivate mindfulness, which would result in greater improvement in mental health. Moreover, whether the parenting practice is positive or not, mindfulness interventions could improve the consequences of parenting practice.
Limitations and future research
Despite the numerous strengths of this longitudinal study, some limitations must be noted. First, all of the data came from participants’ subjective reports; future studies should incorporate other forms of evidence (such as reports from teachers and classmates) to bolster the reliability of our results. Future studies could also overcome this limitation by using multi-source data collection methods or experimental method designs to test our theoretical models and determine the causal relationships between variables. Second, participants were Chinese middle school students, so our results are not generalizable to Chinese adults. Third, while this research examined the mediation role of mindfulness in the link between positive parenting and maladaptive psychological outcomes, individual factors, such as adolescent resilience (Kaniušonytė and Laursen, 2022), may also mediate the effects of positive parenting on adolescent mental health. Therefore, future studies should focus on additional protective factors that might also play a mediating role in the link between positive parenting and adolescent mental health. Fourth, despite our use of longitudinal data, the time interval between the measurement waves was only 2 months. This may not be sufficient to detect the wave-to-wave influence of the constructs on one another. Future studies should explore the influence of positive parenting and mindfulness in multiple waves at longer time intervals to clarify how mindfulness mediates the effects of positive parenting and maladaptive psychological outcomes. Fifth, a longitudinal design enabled us to test mediation effects in a more rigorous manner than for cross-sectional designs. However, each variable was measured only once, and so our results could lack stability (Cole and Maxwell, 2003). Future studies should collect all variables at all waves and use a three-wave cross-lagged analysis to verify the model proposed in this study. Intervention studies investigating whether mindfulness changes aggression/depression/suicidal ideation in adolescents would also clarify the issue of directionality. In future research, we will use intervention or experimental methods to directly explore the relationship between independent variables (mindfulness) and dependent variables (depression, aggression, and suicidal ideation).
Conclusion
This is the first study to examine the longitudinal relationship between positive parenting and mindfulness, aggression, depression, and suicidal ideation in a sample of Chinese middle school students. The current study expands on previous work and provides important insights that enhance our understanding of these relationships. Given that positive parenting may increase adolescents’ level of mindfulness, this mechanism could facilitate the design of depression and suicide intervention and prevention programs.
Data availability statement
The data analyzed in this study is subject to the following licenses/restrictions: The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding authors on reasonable request. Requests to access these datasets should be directed to corresponding authors.
Ethics statement
This study had been approved by the academic committee of Zunyi Medical University. Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants or their legal guardian/next of kin.
Author contributions
YS, WS, and ZL designed the study. WS and ZL collected the data. HT, ZL, QZ, and GL analyzed and interpreted the data. YS drafted the manuscript. LH, YG, HT, and ZL revised the manuscript critically for important intellectual content. All authors agreed to be accountable.
Funding
This work was supported by the Master Start Funding Projects of Zunyi Medical University (grant no. F-974) and Theoretical Innovation Project of Guizhou Province (grant no. GZLCLH-2021-537).
Acknowledgments
We thank all participants for participating in this study.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
References
Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the self-report and 1991 YSR profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont Department of Psychiatry.
Achenbach, T. M., and Edelbrock, C. (1991). Child behavior checklist, Vol. 7. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.
Al Harbi, B. H., Mhedat, F. A., and Alkhazaleh, Z. M. (2021). Mindfulness and its relation to psychological resilience and depression of distinguished students. J. Educ. Soc. Res. 11, 91–91. doi: 10.36941/jesr-2021-0054
Alsaad, A. J., Azhar, Y., and Al Nasser, Y. (2018). Depression in children. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing.
Apter, A., and Gvion, Y. (2016). “Reflections on suicide in children and adolescents,” in Child and adolescent psychiatry, eds S. Malhotra and P. Santosh (New York, NY: Springer), 63–77. doi: 10.1007/978-81-322-3619-1_5
Archana Kumar, U. (2022). “Depression and suicide: An interrelated mental health challenge among adolescents,” in Adolescence in india, ed. S. Patra (Singapore: Springer), doi: 10.1007/978-981-16-9881-1_9
Augsberger, A., Rivera, A. M., Hahm, C. T., Lee, Y. A., Choi, Y., and Hahm, H. C. (2018). Culturally related risk factors of suicidal ideation, intent, and behavior among Asian American women. Asian Am. J. Psychol. 9:252. doi: 10.1037/aap0000146
Baer, R., Crane, C., Miller, E., and Kuyken, W. (2019). Doing no harm in mindfulness-based programs: Conceptual issues and empirical findings. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 71, 101–114. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2019.01.001
Bajaj, B., Robins, R. W., and Pande, N. (2016). Mediating role of self-esteem on the relationship between mindfulness, anxiety, and depression. Pers. Individ. Differ. 96, 127–131. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2016.02.085
Bamaca-Colbert, M. Y., Gonzales-Backen, M., Henry, C. S., Kim, P. S., Roblyer, M. Z., Plunkett, S. W., et al. (2018). Family profiles of cohesion and parenting practices and Latino youth adjustment. Fam. Process 57, 719–736. doi: 10.1111/famp.12314
Beck, A. T., and Steer, R. A. (1991). Manual for the Beck scale for suicide ideation. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation, 63.
Bentley, K. H., Nock, M. K., Sauer-Zavala, S., Gorman, B. S., and Barlow, D. H. (2017). A functional analysis of two transdiagnostic, emotion-focused interventions on nonsuicidal self-injury. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 85:632. doi: 10.1037/ccp0000205
Boeldt, D. L., Rhee, S. H., DiLalla, L. F., Mullineaux, P. Y., Schulz-Heik, R. J., Corley, R. P., et al. (2012). The association between positive parenting and externalizing behaviour. Infant Child Dev. 21, 85–106. doi: 10.1002/icd.764
Borkowski, J. G., Ramey, S. L., and Bristol-Power, M. (2001). “Parenting and the child’s world,” in Influences on academic, intellectual, and social-emotional development, eds J. G. Borkowski, S. L. Ramey, and M. Bristol-Power (Hove: Psychology Press). doi: 10.4324/9781410603616
Bowen, M. (1974). Alcoholism as viewed through family systems theory and family psychotherapy. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 233, 115–122. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1974.tb40288.x
Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Volume II: Separation, anxiety and anger. New York, NY: The Hogarth Press and The Institute of Psycho-Analysis, 1–429.
Brown, K. W., and Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 84:822. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822
Cabello, M., Miret, M., Ayuso-Mateos, J. L., Caballero, F. F., Chatterji, S., Tobiasz-Adamczyk, B., et al. (2020). Cross-national prevalence and factors associated with suicide ideation and attempts in older and young-and-middle age people. Aging Ment. Health 24, 1533–1542. doi: 10.1080/13607863.2019.1603284
Caldwell, J. G., and Shaver, P. R. (2015). Promoting attachment-related mindfulness and compassion: A wait-list-controlled study of women who were mistreated during childhood. Mindfulness 6, 624–636. doi: 10.1007/s12671-014-0298-y
Carlo, G., Mestre, M. V., Samper, P., Tur, A., and Armenta, B. E. (2011). The longitudinal relations among dimensions of parenting styles, sympathy, prosocial moral reasoning, and prosocial behaviors. Int. J. Behav. Dev. 35, 116–124. doi: 10.1177/0165025410375921
Chao, R. K. (1994). Beyond parental control and authoritarian parenting style: Understanding Chinese parenting through the cultural notion of training. Child Dev. 65, 1111–1119. doi: 10.2307/1131308
Cheah, C. S., Leung, C. Y., Tahseen, M., and Schultz, D. (2009). Authoritative parenting among immigrant Chinese mothers of preschoolers. J. Fam. Psychol. 23:311. doi: 10.1037/a0015076
Chen, F. R., and Raine, A. (2018). Effects of harsh parenting and positive parenting practices on youth aggressive behavior: The moderating role of early pubertal timing. Aggress. Behav. 44, 18–28. doi: 10.1002/ab.21720
Cheung, C. S. S., and Pomerantz, E. M. (2011). Parents’ involvement in children’s learning in the United States and China: Implications for children’s academic and emotional adjustment. Child Dev. 82, 932–950. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01582.x
Christopher, M. S., and Gilbert, B. D. (2010). Incremental validity of components of mindfulness in the prediction of satisfaction with life and depression. Curr. Psychol. 29, 10–23. doi: 10.1007/s12144-009-9067-9
Chronis, A. M., Lahey, B. B., Pelham, W. E. Jr., Williams, S. H., Baumann, B. L., Kipp, H., et al. (2007). Maternal depression and early positive parenting predict future conduct problems in young children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Dev. Psychol. 43:70. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.43.1.70
Clayborne, Z. M., Kingsbury, M., Sampasa-Kinyaga, H., Sikora, L., Lalande, K. M., and Colman, I. (2021). Parenting practices in childhood and depression, anxiety, and internalizing symptoms in adolescence: A systematic review. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 56, 619–638. doi: 10.1007/s00127-020-01956-z
Cluver, L., Orkin, M., Boyes, M. E., and Sherr, L. (2015). Child and adolescent suicide attempts, suicidal behavior, and adverse childhood experiences in South Africa: A prospective study. J. Adoles. Health 57, 52–59. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.03.001
Coffey, K. A., Hartman, M., and Fredrickson, B. L. (2010). Deconstructing mindfulness and constructing mental health: Understanding mindfulness and its mechanisms of action. Mindfulness 1, 235–253. doi: 10.1007/s12671-010-0033-2
Cole, D. A., and Maxwell, S. E. (2003). Testing mediational models with longitudinal data: Questions and tips in the use of structural equation modeling. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 112, 558–577. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.112.4.558
Creswell, J. D., and Lindsay, E. K. (2014). How does mindfulness training affect health? A mindfulness stress buffering account. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 23, 401–407. doi: 10.1177/0963721414547415
Deng, Y.-Q., Li, S., Tang, Y.-Y., Zhu, L.-H., Ryan, R., and Brown, K. (2012). Psychometric properties of the Chinese translation of the mindful attention awareness scale (MAAS). Mindfulness 3, 10–14. doi: 10.1007/s12671-011-0074-1
Dumais, A., Lesage, A. D., Alda, M., Rouleau, G., Dumont, M., Chawky, N., et al. (2005). Risk factors for suicide completion in major depression: A case-control study of impulsive and aggressive behaviors in men. Am. J. Psychiatry 162, 2116–2124. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.162.11.2116
Duncan, L. G., Coatsworth, J. D., and Greenberg, M. T. (2009). A model of mindful parenting: Implications for parent–child relationships and prevention research. Clin. Child Fam. Psychol. Rev. 12, 255–270. doi: 10.1007/s10567-009-0046-3
Elias, M. J., Zins, J. E., Weissberg, R. P., Frey, K. S., Greenberg, M. T., Haynes, N. M., et al. (1997). Promoting social and emotional learning: Guidelines for educators. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Elmore, C. A., and Gaylord-Harden, N. K. (2013). The influence of supportive parenting and racial socialization messages on African American youth behavioral outcomes. J. Child Fam. Stud. 22, 63–75. doi: 10.1007/s10826-012-9653-6
Feng, X., Keenan, K., Hipwell, A. E., Henneberger, A. K., Rischall, M. S., Butch, J., et al. (2009). Longitudinal associations between emotion regulation and depression in preadolescent girls: Moderation by the caregiving environment. Dev. Psychol. 45:798. doi: 10.1037/a0014617
Ferrari, A., Somerville, A., Baxter, A., Norman, R., Patten, S., Vos, T., et al. (2013). Global variation in the prevalence and incidence of major depressive disorder: A systematic review of the epidemiological literature. Psychol. Med. 43, 471–481. doi: 10.1017/S0033291712001511
Fix, R. L., and Fix, S. T. (2013). The effects of mindfulness-based treatments for aggression: A critical review. Aggress. Violent Behav. 18, 219–227. doi: 10.1016/j.avb.2012.11.009
Fotti, S. A., Katz, L. Y., Afifi, T. O., and Cox, B. J. (2006). The associations between peer and parental relationships and suicidal behaviours in early adolescents. Can. J. Psychiatry 51, 698–703. doi: 10.1177/070674370605101106
Franklin, J. C., Ribeiro, J. D., Fox, K. R., Bentley, K. H., Kleiman, E. M., Huang, X., et al. (2017). Risk factors for suicidal thoughts and behaviors: A meta-analysis of 50 years of research. Psychol. Bull. 143:187. doi: 10.1037/bul0000084
Galla, B. M., Tsukayama, E., Park, D., Yu, A., and Duckworth, A. L. (2020). The mindful adolescent: Developmental changes in nonreactivity to inner experiences and its association with emotional well-being. Dev. Psychol. 56:350. doi: 10.1037/dev0000877
Gillions, A., Cheang, R., and Duarte, R. (2019). The effect of mindfulness practice on aggression and violence levels in adults: A systematic review. Aggress. Violent Behav. 48, 104–115. doi: 10.1016/j.avb.2019.08.012
Gini, G., and Pozzoli, T. (2013). Bullied children and psychosomatic problems: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics 132:720. doi: 10.1542/peds.2013-0614
Gini, G., Pozzoli, T., and Hymel, S. (2013). Moral disengagement among children and youth: A meta-analytic review of links to aggressive behavior. Aggress. Behav. 40, 56–68. doi: 10.1002/ab.21502
Graber, J. A. (2013). Internalizing problems during adolescence. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, 587–626. doi: 10.1002/9780471726746.ch19
Groleger, U., Tomori, M., and Kocmur, M. (2003). Suicidal ideation in adolescence-an indicator of actual risk? Isr. J. Psychiatry 40:202.
Grunbaum, J. A., Kann, L., Kinchen, S., Ross, J., Hawkins, J., Lowry, R., et al. (2004). Youth risk behavior surveillance–United States, 2003. MMWR Surveill. Summ. 53, 1–96. doi: 10.1111/j.1746-1561.2004.tb06620.x
Guo, L., Xu, Y., Huang, G., Gao, X., Deng, X., Luo, M., et al. (2019). Association between body weight status and suicidal ideation among Chinese adolescents: The moderating role of the child’s sex. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 54, 823–833. doi: 10.1007/s00127-019-01661-6
Hargus, E., Crane, C., Barnhofer, T., and Williams, J. M. G. (2010). Effects of mindfulness on meta-awareness and specificity of describing prodromal symptoms in suicidal depression. Emotion 10:34. doi: 10.1037/a0016825
Hartup, W. W., and Stevens, N. (1997). Friendships and adaptation in the life course. Psychol. Bull. 121, 355–370. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.121.3.355
Hentges, R. F., Shaw, D. S., and Wang, M.-T. (2018). Early childhood parenting and child impulsivity as precursors to aggression, substance use, and risky sexual behavior in adolescence and early adulthood. Dev. Psychopathol. 30, 1305–1319. doi: 10.1017/S0954579417001596
Heppner, W. L., Kernis, M. H., Lakey, C. E., Campbell, W. K., Goldman, B. M., Davis, P. J., et al. (2008). Mindfulness as a means of reducing aggressive behavior: Dispositional and situational evidence. Aggress. Behav. 34, 486–496. doi: 10.1002/ab.20258
Hu, L. T., and Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Struct. Equ. Modeling 6, 1–55. doi: 10.1080/10705519909540118
Hülsheger, U. R., Alberts, H. J., Feinholdt, A., and Lang, J. W. (2013). Benefits of mindfulness at work: The role of mindfulness in emotion regulation, emotional exhaustion, and job satisfaction. J. Appl. Psychol. 98:310. doi: 10.1037/a0031313
Jakobsen, I. S., Horwood, L. J., and Fergusson, D. M. (2012). Childhood anxiety/withdrawal, adolescent parent–child attachment and later risk of depression and anxiety disorder. J. Child Fam. Stud. 21, 303–310. doi: 10.1007/s10826-011-9476-x
Juffer, F., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., and van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2012). “Methods of the video-feedback programs to promote positive parenting alone, with sensitive discipline, and with representational attachment discussions,” in Promoting positive parenting: An attachment-based intervention, eds F. Juffer, M. J. Bakermans-Kranenburg, and M. H. van IJzendoorn (London: Routledge). doi: 10.4324/9780203809624
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clin. Psychol. Sci. Pract. 10, 144–156. doi: 10.1093/clipsy.bpg016
Kaniušonytė, G., and Laursen, B. (2022). Perceptions of positive parenting predict increases in resilience for low neurotic and high agreeable adolescents. Pers. Individ. Differ. 185:111272. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2021.111272
Katz, D., and Toner, B. (2013). A systematic review of gender differences in the effectiveness of mindfulness-based treatments for substance use disorders. Mindfulness 4, 318–331. doi: 10.1007/s12671-012-0132-3
Kawabata, Y., Alink, L., Tseng, W. L., Ijzendoorn, M., and Crick, N. R. (2011). Maternal and paternal parenting styles associated with relational aggression in children and adolescents: A conceptual analysis and meta-analytic review. Dev. Rev. 31, 240–278. doi: 10.1016/j.dr.2011.08.001
Kim, J. L., Kim, J. M., Choi, Y., Lee, T. H., and Park, E. C. (2016). Effect of socioeconomic status on the linkage between suicidal ideation and suicide attempts. Suicide Life Threat. Behav. 46, 588–597. doi: 10.1111/sltb.12242
Kingsbury, M., Sucha, E., Manion, I., Gilman, S. E., and Colman, I. (2020). Adolescent mental health following exposure to positive and harsh parenting in childhood. Can. J. Psychiatry. 65, 392–400. doi: 10.1177/0706743719889551
Kircaburun, K., Griffiths, M. D., and Billieux, J. (2019). Trait emotional intelligence and problematic online behaviors among adolescents: The mediating role of mindfulness, rumination, and depression. Pers. Individ. Differ. 139, 208–213. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2018.11.024
Kriakous, S. A., Elliott, K. A., Lamers, C., and Owen, R. (2021). The effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction on the psychological functioning of healthcare professionals: A systematic review. Mindfulness 12, 1–28. doi: 10.1007/s12671-020-01500-9
Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., and Williams, J. B. (2001). The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 16, 606–613. doi: 10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x
Lai, K. W., and McBride-Chang, C. (2001). Suicidal ideation, parenting style, and family climate among Hong Kong adolescents. Int. J. Psychol. 36, 81–87. doi: 10.1080/00207590042000065
Lan, X. (2022). Perceived parenting styles, cognitive flexibility, and prosocial behavior in Chinese youth with an immigrant background: A three-group comparison. Curr. Psychol. 1–19. doi: 10.1007/s12144-022-03140-9
Lee, G., and Ham, O. K. (2018). Behavioral and psychosocial factors associated with suicidal ideation among adolescents. Nurs. Health Sci. 20, 394–401. doi: 10.1111/nhs.12422
Lei, H., Chiu, M. M., Cui, Y., Zhou, W., and Li, S. (2018). Parenting style and aggression: A meta-analysis of mainland Chinese children and youth. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 94, 446–455. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.07.033
Li, Z., Wang, L., and Zhang, L. (2012). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis of a short-form of the EMBU among Chinese adolescents. Psychol. Rep. 110, 263–275. doi: 10.2466/02.08.09.21.PR0.110.1.263-275
Little, T. D., Cunningham, W. A., Shahar, G., and Widaman, K. F. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Struct. Equ. Model. 9, 151–173. doi: 10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_1
Liu, J., Liu, X., Wang, H., and Gao, Y. (2021). Harsh parenting and non-suicidal self-injury in adolescence: The mediating effect of depressive symptoms and the moderating effect of the COMT Val158Met polymorphism. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry Ment. Health 15, 1–9. doi: 10.1186/s13034-021-00423-0
Lucas-Thompson, R. G., Miller, R. L., and Seiter, N. S. (2021). Dispositional mindfulness is cross-sectionally predicted by interactions between interparental conflict and parent-child relationships. Pers. Individ. Differ. 172:110556. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2020.110556
Maccoby, E. E. (2001). “Parenting effects: Issues and controversies,” in Parenting and the child’s world, eds J. G. Borkowski, S. L. Ramey, and M. Bristol-Power (Hove: Psychology Press), 35–46. doi: 10.4324/9781410603616-3
Machell, K. A., Rallis, B. A., and Esposito-Smythers, C. (2016). Family environment as a moderator of the association between anxiety and suicidal ideation. J. Anxiety Disord. 40, 1–7. doi: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.03.002
Mark, L., Samm, A., Tooding, L.-M., Sisask, M., Aasvee, K., Zaborskis, A., et al. (2013). Suicidal ideation, risk factors, and communication with parents: An HBSC study on school children in Estonia, Lithuania, and Luxembourg. Crisis 34, 3–12. doi: 10.1027/0227-5910/a000153
Marsh, H. W., Hau, K.-T., and Grayson, D. (2005). “Goodness of fit evaluation,” in Contemporary psychometrics, eds A. Maydeu-Olivares and J. McArdle (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum), 275–340.
Maxwell, J. P. (2007). Development and preliminary validation of a Chinese version of the buss–perry aggression questionnaire in a population of Hong Kong Chinese. J. Pers. Assess. 88, 284–294. doi: 10.1080/00223890701317004
McLoughlin, A. B., Gould, M. S., and Malone, K. M. (2015). Global trends in teenage suicide: 2003–2014. QJM 108, 765–780. doi: 10.1093/qjmed/hcv026
Melen, S., Pepping, C. A., and O’Donovan, A. (2017). Social foundations of mindfulness: Priming attachment anxiety reduces emotion regulation and mindful attention. Mindfulness 8, 136–143. doi: 10.1007/s12671-016-0587-8
Mohammadi, M. R., Alavi, S. S., Ahmadi, N., Khaleghi, A., Kamali, K., Ahmadi, A., et al. (2019). The prevalence, comorbidity and socio-demographic factors of depressive disorder among Iranian children and adolescents: To identify the main predictors of depression. J. Affect. Disord. 247, 1–10. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2019.01.005
Moreira, H., and Canavarro, M. C. (2018). Does the association between mindful parenting and adolescents’ dispositional mindfulness depend on the levels of anxiety and depression symptomatology in mothers? J. Adolesc. 68, 22–31. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.07.003
Mrug, S., Elliott, M., Gilliland, M. J., Grunbaum, J. A., Tortolero, S. R., Cuccaro, P., et al. (2008). Positive parenting and early puberty in girls: Protective effects against aggressive behavior. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 162, 781–786. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.162.8.781
Murray, C. J., Barber, R. M., Foreman, K. J., Ozgoren, A. A., Abd-Allah, F., Abera, S. F., et al. (2015). Global, regional, and national disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 306 diseases and injuries and healthy life expectancy (HALE) for 188 countries, 1990–2013: Quantifying the epidemiological transition. Lancet 386, 2145–2191. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)61340-X
Muthén, L. K., and Muthén, B. O. (1998-2017). Mplus user’s guide. 8th Edn. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
Nair, N., Taylor, Z. E., Evich, C. D., and Jones, B. L. (2020). Relations of positive parenting, effortful control, and resilience in rural Midwestern Latinx early adolescents. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 113:105003. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105003
Ngai, S. S.-Y., Xie, L., Ng, Y.-H, and Ngai, H.-L. (2018). The effects of parenting behavior on prosocial behavior of Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 87, 154–162. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.02.030
Nieto-Casado, F. J., Antolín-Suárez, L., Rodríguez-Meirinhos, A., and Oliva, A. (2022). Effect of parental competences on anxious-depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation in adolescents: Exploring the mediating role of mindfulness. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 138:106526. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2022.106526
Parke, R. D., Cassidy, J., Burks, V. M., Carson, J. L., and Boyum, L. (1992). “Familial contribution to peer competence among young children: The role of interactive and affective processes,” in Family–peer relationships: Modes of linkage, eds R. D. Parke and G. W. Ladd (Mahwah, N J: Lawrence Erlbaum Associate).
Parker, S. C., Nelson, B. W., Epel, E. S., and Siegel, D. J. (2015). “The science of presence,” in Handbook of mindfulness: Theory, research, and practice, eds K. W. Brown, J. D. Creswell, and R. M. Ryan. (New York, NY: The Guilford Press), 225.
Peng, C., Guo, T., Cheng, J., Wang, M., Rong, F., Zhang, S., et al. (2022). Sex differences in association between internet addiction and aggression among adolescents aged 12 to 18 in mainland of China. J. Affect. Disord. 312, 198–207. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2022.06.026
Pepping, C. A., Davis, P. J., and O’Donovan, A. (2013). Individual differences in attachment and dispositional mindfulness: The mediating role of emotion regulation. Pers. Individ. Differ. 54, 453–456. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2012.10.006
Pepping, C. A., O’Donovan, A., Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., and Hanisch, M. (2015). Individual differences in attachment and eating pathology: The mediating role of mindfulness. Pers. Individ. Differ. 75, 24–29. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2014.10.040
Per, M., Schmelefske, E., Brophy, K., Austin, S. B., and Khoury, B. (2022). Mindfulness, self-compassion, self-injury, and suicidal thoughts and behaviors: A correlational meta-analysis. Mindfulness 13, 821–842. doi: 10.1007/s12671-021-01815-1
Perris, C., Jacobsson, L., Linndström, H., von Knorring, L., and Perris, H. (1980). Development of a new inventory for assessing memories of parental rearing behaviour. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 61, 265–274. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.1980.tb00581.x
Peters, J. R., Smart, L. M., Eisenlohr-Moul, T. A., Geiger, P. J., Smith, G. T., and Baer, R. A. (2015). Anger rumination as a mediator of the relationship between mindfulness and aggression: The utility of a multidimensional mindfulness model. J. Clin. Psychol. 71, 871–884. doi: 10.1002/jclp.22189
Pinquart, M. (2017a). Associations of parenting dimensions and styles with externalizing problems of children and adolescents: An updated meta-analysis. Dev. Psychol. 53:873. doi: 10.1037/dev0000295
Pinquart, M. (2017b). Associations of parenting dimensions and styles with internalizing symptoms in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Marriage Fam. Rev. 53, 613–640. doi: 10.1080/01494929.2016.1247761
Polanczyk, G. V., Salum, G. A., Sugaya, L. S., Caye, A., and Rohde, L. A. (2015). Annual research review: A meta-analysis of the worldwide prevalence of mental disorders in children and adolescents. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 56, 345–365. doi: 10.1111/jcpp.12381
Purcell, B., Heisel, M. J., Speice, J., Franus, N., Conwell, Y., and Duberstein, P. R. (2012). Family connectedness moderates the association between living alone and suicide ideation in a clinical sample of adults 50 years and older. Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 20, 717–723. doi: 10.1097/JGP.0b013e31822ccd79
Reitz, E., Dekoviæ, M., and Meijer, A. (2005). The structure and stability of externalizing and internalizing problem behavior during early adolescence. J. Youth Adolesc. 34, 577–588. doi: 10.1007/s10964-005-8947-z
Rezakhani, S., and Vakili, P. (2021). The effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction on depression and aggression in nurses of psychiatric hospital. Iran. J. Psychiatr. Nurs. 9, 122–132.
Roskam, I. (2015). Enhancing positive parenting through metacognition with the program ‘Lou & us’. J. Child Fam. Stud. 24, 2496–2507. doi: 10.1007/s10826-014-0052-z
Rothbaum, F., and Weisz, J. R. (1994). Parental caregiving and child externalizing behavior in nonclinical samples: A meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 116:55. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.116.1.55
Russell, A. (1996). Positive parenting and boys’ and girls’ misbehaviour during a home observation. Int. J. Behav. Dev. 19, 291–308. doi: 10.1177/016502549601900204
Ryan, R. M., Brown, K. W., and Creswell, J. D. (2007). How integrative is attachment theory? Unpacking the meaning and significance of felt security. Psychol. Inq. 18, 177–182. doi: 10.1080/10478400701512778
Schmelefske, E., Per, M., Khoury, B., and Heath, N. (2020). The effects of mindfulness-based interventions on suicide outcomes: A meta-analysis. Arch. Suicide Res. 26, 447–464. doi: 10.1080/13811118.2020.1833796
Schofield, T. J., Conger, R. D., and Neppl, T. K. (2014). Positive parenting, beliefs about parental efficacy, and active coping: Three sources of intergenerational resilience. J. Fam. Psychol. 28:973. doi: 10.1037/fam0000024
Schwartz, O. S., Byrne, M. L., Simmons, J. G., Whittle, S., Dudgeon, P., Yap, M. B., et al. (2014). Parenting during early adolescence and adolescent-onset major depression: A 6-year prospective longitudinal study. Clin. Psychol. Sci. 2, 272–286. doi: 10.1177/2167702613505531
Serpa, J. G., Taylor, S. L., and Tillisch, K. (2014). Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) reduces anxiety, depression, and suicidal ideation in veterans. Med. Care 52, 19–24. doi: 10.1097/MLR.0000000000000202
Sharaf, A. Y., Thompson, E. A., and Walsh, E. (2009). Protective effects of self-esteem and family support on suicide risk behaviors among at-risk adolescents. J. Child Adolesc. Psychiatr. Nurs. 22, 160–168. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6171.2009.00194.x
Sharma, P. K., and Kumra, R. (2022). Relationship between mindfulness, depression, anxiety and stress: Mediating role of self-efficacy. Pers. Individ. Differ. 186:111363. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2021.111363
Shaver, P. R., Lavy, S., Saron, C. D., and Mikulincer, M. (2007). Social foundations of the capacity for mindfulness: An attachment perspective. Psychol. Inq. 18, 264–271. doi: 10.1080/10478400701598389
Shek, D. T. (2007). A longitudinal study of perceived differences in parental control and parent-child relational qualities in Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong. J. Adolesc. Res. 22, 156–188. doi: 10.1177/0743558406297509
Shpigel, M. S., Diamond, G. M., and Diamond, G. S. (2012). Changes in parenting behaviors, attachment, depressive symptoms, and suicidal ideation in attachment-based family therapy for depressive and suicidal adolescents. J. Marital Fam. Ther. 38, 271–283. doi: 10.1111/j.1752-0606.2012.00295.x
Shrout, P. E., and Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychol. Med. 7:422. doi: 10.1037/1082-989X.7.4.422
Siever, L. J. (2008). Neurobiology of aggression and violence. Am. J. Psychiatry 165, 429–442. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.07111774
Smalls, C. (2009). African American adolescent engagement in the classroom and beyond: The roles of mother’s racial socialization and democratic-involved parenting. J. Youth Adolesc. 38, 204–213. doi: 10.1007/s10964-008-9316-5
Smokowski, P. R., Bacallao, M. L., Cotter, K. L., and Evans, C. B. (2015). The effects of positive and negative parenting practices on adolescent mental health outcomes in a multicultural sample of rural youth. Child Psychiatry Hum. Dev. 46, 333–345. doi: 10.1007/s10578-014-0474-2
Stevenson, J. C., Emerson, L.-M., and Millings, A. (2017). The relationship between adult attachment orientation and mindfulness: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Mindfulness 8, 1438–1455. doi: 10.1007/s12671-017-0733-y
Stipek, D., and Miles, S. (2008). Effects of aggression on achievement: Does conflict with the teacher make it worse? Child Dev. 79, 1721–1735. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01221.x
Swahn, M. H., and Bossarte, R. M. (2007). Gender, early alcohol use, and suicide ideation and attempts: Findings from the 2005 youth risk behavior survey. J. Adolesc. Health 41, 175–181. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.03.003
Tolan, P., Ross, K., Arkin, N., Godine, N., and Clark, E. (2016). Toward an integrated approach to positive development: Implications for intervention. Appl. Dev. Sci. 20, 214–236. doi: 10.1080/10888691.2016.1146080
Wallace, B. A., and Shapiro, S. L. (2006). Mental balance and well-being: Building bridges between Buddhism and Western psychology. Am. Psychol. 61:690. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.61.7.690
Wang, M., and Liu, L. (2014). Parental harsh discipline in mainland China: Prevalence, frequency, and coexistence. Child Abuse Negl. 38, 1128–1137. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.02.016
Wang, W., Bian, Q., Zhao, Y., Li, X., Wang, W., Du, J., et al. (2014). Reliability and validity of the Chinese version of the patient health questionnaire (PHQ-9) in the general population. Gen. Hosp. Psychiatry 36, 539–544. doi: 10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2014.05.021
Westphal, M., Wall, M., Corbeil, T., Keller, D. I., Brodmann-Maeder, M., Ehlert, U., et al. (2021). Mindfulness predicts less depression, anxiety, and social impairment in emergency care personnel: A longitudinal study. PLoS One 16:e0260208. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0260208
Williams, J. M. G. (2008). Mindfulness, depression and modes of mind. Cogn. Ther. Res. 32, 721–733. doi: 10.1007/s10608-008-9204-z
Williams, J. M. G., Teasdale, J. D., Segal, Z. V., and Soulsby, J. (2000). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy reduces overgeneral autobiographical memory in formerly depressed patients. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 109:150. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.109.1.150
Witt, K., Boland, A., Lamblin, M., McGorry, P. D., Veness, B., Cipriani, A., et al. (2019). Effectiveness of universal programmes for the prevention of suicidal ideation, behaviour and mental ill health in medical students: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Evid. Based Ment. Health 22, 84–90. doi: 10.1136/ebmental-2019-300082
World Health Organization [WHO] (2007). Helping parents in developing countries improve adolescents’ health. Geneva: World Health Organization.
Xiao, L., Zhang, S., Li, W., Wu, R., Wang, W., Wang, T., et al. (2019). The mediating effect of sleep quality on the relationship between emotional and behavioral problems and suicidal ideation. Int. J. Environ. Res. Pub. Health 16:4963. doi: 10.3390/ijerph16244963
Xu, H., Yang, X., Lai, X., Zhao, C., Tu, X., Ding, N., et al. (2022). Longitudinal relationships among perceived stress, suicidal ideation and sleep quality in Chinese undergraduates: A cross-lagged model. J. Affect. Disord. 299, 45–51. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2021.11.033
Yaman, A., Mesman, J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., and Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2010). Parenting and toddler aggression in second-generation immigrant families: The moderating role of child temperament. J. Fam. Psychol. 24:208. doi: 10.1037/a0019100
You, S., and Lim, S. A. (2015). Development pathways from abusive parenting to delinquency: The mediating role of depression and aggression. Child Abuse Negl. 46, 152–162. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.05.009
Zhang, J., and Brown, G. K. (2007). Psychometric properties of the scale for suicide ideation in China. Arch. Suicide Res. 11, 203–210. doi: 10.1080/13811110600894652
Zhang, J., and Jin, S. (1996). Determinants of suicide ideation: A comparison of Chinese and American college students. Adolescence 31:451.
Zhou, Q., Eisenberg, N., Losoya, S. H., Fabes, R. A., Reiser, M., Guthrie, I. K., et al. (2002). The relations of parental warmth and positive expressiveness to children\’s empathy-related responding and social functioning: A longitudinal study. Child Dev. 73, 893–915. doi: 10.1111/1467-8624.00446
Keywords: positive parenting, suicidal ideation, aggression, depression, mindfulness
Citation: Su Y, Sun W, Gan Y, Zhu Q, Liu G, Hui L, Tang H and Liu Z (2022) Mindfulness mediates the relationship between positive parenting and aggression, depression, and suicidal ideation: A longitudinal study in middle school students. Front. Psychol. 13:1007983. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1007983
Received: 31 July 2022; Accepted: 12 October 2022;
Published: 03 November 2022.
Edited by:
Chienchung Huang, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, United StatesReviewed by:
Guangzhe Frank Yuan, University of Macau, Macao SAR, ChinaCongcong Zhang, China Youth University for Political Sciences, China
Copyright © 2022 Su, Sun, Gan, Zhu, Liu, Hui, Tang and Liu. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Hui Tang, aHRfcHN5QHpxdS5lZHUuY24=; Zhijun Liu, bHpqMDIwMzE4QGhvdG1haWwuY29t
†These authors have contributed equally to this work and share first authorship