Entrepreneurial role models and college students’ entrepreneurial calling: A moderated mediation model

Introduction: College entrepreneurship education should not only cultivate a group of college students who have strong willingness to start a business immediately after graduation, but also pay attention to future entrepreneurship success of college students. Correspondingly, in addition to attaching importance to improving college students’ entrepreneurial intention, college entrepreneurship education should pay attention to improving college students’ entrepreneurial calling. At present, there is insufficient research on the association between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial calling. We aim to study the mechanism and boundary condition of the association between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial calling.

Methods: A longitudinal survey was distributed among 519 students from 16 colleges and universities in China. In the survey, the college students answered questions on entrepreneurial role models, entrepreneurial calling, entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial hands-on practice. Hierarchical regression was conducted, testing the association between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial calling of college students, mediated by entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and moderated by entrepreneurial hands-on practice.

Results: Therefore, based on the social learning theory, the theory of planned behavior and the entrepreneurial event model, and by hierarchical regression of the data, this study confirmed that entrepreneurial role models were positively associated with college students’ entrepreneurial calling by partially mediating with entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control. Moreover, Entrepreneurial hands-on practice positively moderated not only the relationship between entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial calling, but also the mediating association of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial calling.

Discussion: This study not only enriches the theoretical research on entrepreneurial calling and entrepreneurial role models, but also provides valuable educational enlightenment for colleges and universities to improve the students’ entrepreneurial calling.

1. Introduction

Entrepreneurship can not only boost the national economic growth, promote the transformation of the industrial structure and the conversion of the old and new kinetic energy, but also create jobs and raise the level of the social employment. In 2014, the Chinese government called for mass innovation and mass entrepreneurship. Under the influence of the current internal and external economic environment and the entrepreneurship policy in China, college students have become the new main body of entrepreneurship (Kong et al., 2020). College entrepreneurship education should not only cultivate a group of college students who have strong willingness to start a business immediately after graduation, but also pay attention to future entrepreneurship success of college students (Franco et al., 2010). Correspondingly, in addition to attaching importance to improving college students’ entrepreneurial intention, college entrepreneurship education should pay attention to improving college students’ meaningful passion for entrepreneurship, that is entrepreneurial calling. If the entrepreneurial calling level of college students is improved, a number of them will hold the dream of entrepreneurship, constantly improve entrepreneurial ability, develop entrepreneurial resources, and when the time is ripe, they will have the entrepreneurial intention to start a business (Duffy and Sedlacek, 2007; Dik and Steger, 2008; Douglass and Duffy, 2015; Hirschi et al., 2018; Lau et al., 2020; Luo M. et al., 2022). In the long run, the college entrepreneurship education emphasizing on cultivating entrepreneurial calling can effectively improve the number of college graduates who will set up their own business and succeed in entrepreneurship in the future, so it has strong practical significance and potential value.

The innovation and entrepreneurship education in colleges and universities will become an obvious trend in the future (Qu, 2021). Entrepreneurship education can impart entrepreneurial knowledge (Low, 2001; Boldureanu et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2021), skills (Nian et al., 2014; Boldureanu et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2021; Soomro and Shah, 2022) and attitudes (Duong, 2021; Otache et al., 2021). It also can cultivate entrepreneurs (Volery and Mueller, 2006; Woollard et al., 2007). College entrepreneurship education can enhance college students’ entrepreneurial creativity (Wang C. et al., 2022), entrepreneurial process competence (Mets et al., 2022), entrepreneurial capability (Yin and Wang, 2017), business opportunity recognition (Othman et al., 2020), entrepreneurial self-efficacy (Luo L. et al., 2022; Wu et al., 2022), entrepreneurial alertness (Saadat et al., 2021), entrepreneurial intention (Mónico et al., 2021; Anwar et al., 2022; Hieu and Loan, 2022; Otache et al., 2022), entrepreneurial mindset (Jiatong et al., 2021), entrepreneurial preparation (Saptono et al., 2020), entrepreneurial passion (Lee et al., 2021; Uddin et al., 2022) and entrepreneurial behaviors (Cai et al., 2021). College entrepreneurship education should be open. The entrepreneurial activities of college students can be developed by the school or by the students themselves. The exploration of self-employment of college students should also be included in the entrepreneurial education system of colleges and universities. The entrepreneurial role models of college students can be set and publicized by colleges and universities or spontaneously concerned by students.

Entrepreneurial role model is a way of entrepreneurial education and an important factor affecting college students’ career exploration (Luo M. et al., 2022). At present, there is insufficient research on the association between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial calling, which prompts us to conduct empirical research. This study specifically explored the mechanism of the association between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial calling, and examined the mediating role of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and the moderating role of entrepreneurial hands-on practice.

2. Theoretical foundation and hypotheses

2.1. Entrepreneurial calling and entrepreneurial role models

Calling is the continuous meaningful passion of an individual for a particular occupation (Dobrow and Tosti-Kharas, 2011). It is influenced by factors such as individual ability, behavioral participation and social comfort in the field where calling is directed (Ericsson et al., 1993; Winner, 2000; Dobrow, 2013). Entrepreneurship is an occupation of identifying, evaluating and developing opportunities to create future goods and services (Venkataraman, 2012). Entrepreneurial calling was proposed by Da Palma et al. (2018) and Tian et al. (2018), which was a calling that takes entrepreneurship as an occupation. Entrepreneurial calling is different from entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial passion. Entrepreneurial intention is an individual’s tendency to start a business when choosing an occupation, and is considered to be a proximal and immediate predictor of entrepreneurial behavior (Bird and Jelinek, 1988; Bagozzi et al., 1989; Krueger et al., 2000; Majeed et al., 2021). Entrepreneurial passion is the passion experienced by individuals in the entrepreneurial circumstances (Mageau et al., 2009; Perrewe et al., 2013; Cardon and Kirk, 2015; Türk et al., 2020; Yi et al., 2020; Bignetti et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2021). According to the stage of entrepreneurial development, entrepreneurial passion can be divided into the passion for founding enterprises, the passion for discovering opportunities and the passion for developing enterprises (Cardon et al., 2013). Entrepreneurial passion can be generated in real or simulated entrepreneurial circumstances. According to Dobrow (2013) research on calling, entrepreneurial calling is a continuous single-dimensional construct. It is strong and lasting positive emotional experience about entrepreneurship, based on the identification of the meaning and value of entrepreneurship and the identity of entrepreneurs, accompanied by entrepreneurial desire. When individuals are not inclined to choose entrepreneurship as a career, or are not in the entrepreneurial situation, they may have entrepreneurial calling. That is to say, individuals may have entrepreneurial calling when they have no entrepreneurial intention or entrepreneurial passion. Previous studies showed that entrepreneurial calling of college students was positively associated with their entrepreneurial ability (Douglass and Duffy, 2015) and future entrepreneurial choice (Duffy and Sedlacek, 2007; Dik and Steger, 2008).

Shapero and Sokol (1982) were the first to introduce role models into the entrepreneurship research. Entrepreneurial role models are the ones who inspire and motivate people to engage in the entrepreneurial activities (Maziriri et al., 2019). They provide spiritual stimulation or behavioral guidance to people in the field of entrepreneurship, and their behaviors and personal styles are imitated by others (Bandura, 1986; Gibson, 2004; Bosma et al., 2012). Previous studies showed that entrepreneurial role models were positively associated with college students’ entrepreneurial attitude (Nowinski and Haddoud, 2019), perception of entrepreneurial feasibility (Van Trang et al., 2019), entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control (Fellnhofer, 2017a; Fellnhofer and Mueller, 2018), entrepreneurial passion (Fellnhofer, 2017b) and entrepreneurial intention (Liu et al., 2005; Kong et al., 2020; Luo M. et al., 2022).

Bandura (1977a) social learning theory holds that in social situations, individuals can learn by observing other people’s behaviors and their results. The occurrence of social learning is conditional. The conditions include the attraction, reputation or authority of role models, and the need satisfaction of learners (Bandura, 1986). At present, the Chinese government and society advocate entrepreneurship strongly. Successful entrepreneurs have high social prestige and are easy to be imitated. Meanwhile, college students are in the stage of career exploration and are easily attracted by careers that can meet their needs of autonomy, competence and social connection, such as entrepreneurship (Al-Jubari et al., 2018). Therefore, it will be possible for college students to observe and imitate the entrepreneurs as role models. Moreover, the social learning theory holds that individuals’ observation and perception of the role models’ behaviors or psychology, reinforced by the positive consequences, will stimulate their expectation of the same consequences if they adopt the same behaviors and psychology (Bandura, 1977a).

According to the social learning theory, this study held that in the process of observing and learning from entrepreneurial role models, college students’ entrepreneurial calling would be enhanced. First of all, entrepreneurial role models would enhance the positive emotion of college students about entrepreneurship. Passion for entrepreneurship is the defining characteristic of entrepreneurial role models (Chen et al., 2009; Cardon et al., 2013; Saboor et al., 2020). In the process of contacting entrepreneurial role models, college students will be infected by the positive and strong emotion of entrepreneurial role models. Emotional contagion is an emotional experience caused by and matched with the emotions of others (Morris and Feldman, 1996). Emotional contagion has two channels: primitive emotional contagion and conscious emotional contagion (Barsade, 2002). Primitive emotional contagion is generated automatically in the sub-consciousness (Hatfield et al., 1992). The process of conscious emotional contagion is participated by consciousness (Barsade, 2002; Hennig-Thurau et al., 2006). According to the social learning theory, the process of college students’ being infected by the original emotion of entrepreneurial role models is that they automatically and unconsciously imitate the language, facial expression and behavior of entrepreneurial role models. In addition, emotional experience matching the entrepreneurial role model’s love for entrepreneurship is generated in the process of changes in their own language, expression and action (Hatfield et al., 1992). The process of college students’ being affected consciously by the emotions of entrepreneurial role models is that they transfer entrepreneurial role models’ positive emotions towards entrepreneurship into of their own after observing that the positive and strong emotions of entrepreneurial role models are positively strengthened by entrepreneurial results (Falkenberg et al., 2008). Secondly, entrepreneurial role models could enhance college students’ identification of significance and value of entrepreneurship and their identity of entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurial role models have rich entrepreneurial experience and perception. Through words and deeds, they express their strong identification with the entrepreneurial value and entrepreneur identity which were observed or felt by college students. The entrepreneurial achievements made by entrepreneurial role models are positive alternative results for college students. In their view, the salient characteristics of entrepreneurs such as entrepreneurial value identification and entrepreneur identity are reinforced by positive alternative results, so they will have high expectations for these characteristics and then imitate them (Bandura, 1987). The empirical studies showed that entrepreneurial role models were positively associated with individuals’ professional values (Pablo-Lerchundi et al., 2015) and their identity with entrepreneurs (Gibson, 2004; Boldureanu et al., 2020). Lastly, entrepreneurial role models could enhance the entrepreneurial desire of college students. In the process of observing and imitating entrepreneurial role models, college students’ positive emotion towards entrepreneurship, identification with the entrepreneurial value and entrepreneur identity are enhanced. Moreover, entrepreneurship can meet the advantage needs of college students, such as autonomy, competence and social connection (Al-Jubari et al., 2018), therefore their desire for entrepreneurship will be strengthened. Previous empirical studies have also shown that entrepreneurial role models have significant positive association with college students’ aspirations of entrepreneurship (Meccheri and Pelloni, 2006). In summary, in the process of observing and learning from entrepreneurial role models, college students’ positive emotion towards entrepreneurship would be enhanced; the cognitive basis of this emotion – the identification of the meaning and value of entrepreneurship and the identity of entrepreneurs would be enhanced; and the desire to start a business that accompanies this emotion would be enhanced. Therefore, the following hypothesis was proposed in this study:

H1: Entrepreneurial role models are positively associated with college students’ entrepreneurial calling.

2.2. The mediating role of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control

Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior and Shapero’s model of entrepreneurial event are the two most promising approaches to explaining the decision to establish a new business firm in the future (Franco et al., 2010). The theory of planned behavior and the entrepreneurial event model are considered highly analogous to each other while perceived behavioral control and perceived feasibility of an entrepreneurial idea are elements conceptually associated with perceived self-efficacy (Krueger et al., 2000). Some studies utilized both the theory of planned behavior and the entrepreneurial event model to determine the main antecedents of university students’ entrepreneurial intention (Krueger et al., 2000; Veciana et al., 2005; Liñán et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2014; Celik et al., 2021). According to Shapero’s model of entrepreneurial event, perceived entrepreneurial desire, perceived entrepreneurial feasibility and propensity to act are the three main antecedents of an individual’s entrepreneurial intention (Shapero and Sokol, 1982; Peterman and Kennedy, 2003). According to the theory of planned behavior proposed by Ajzen (1991), the three preconditions of behavioral intention are attitude toward behavior, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control. Among them, perceived behavioral control is an important concept in the theory of planned behavior, which has been widely used as an independent concept (Ajzen, 1991). Perceived behavioral control refers to an individual’s belief about the possibility and difficulty of the particular behavior (Bandura, 1977b; Ajzen, 1991). Engle et al. (2010) and Yean et al. (2015) believed that individuals had various beliefs related to activities, thus generating the perception of whether the activities are successful. Perceived behavioral control includes not only the perception of competence reflected by self-efficacy (Bandura et al., 1980; Ajzen, 2002), but also the perception of the resources needed to produce the behavior (Büssing et al., 2019). Although conceptually it is considered to share some degree of similarity to self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977b) and perceived feasibility (Shapero and Sokol, 1982), it is widely used as a stand-alone concept because it encompasses not only the feeling of being able but also the perception about the controllability of the behavior (Liñán and Chen, 2009).

Entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control refers to the subjective evaluation of a person’s own entrepreneurial ability, resources, and the possibility of entrepreneurial success (Yang, 2013). The level of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control is sensitive to environmental factors like cultural influences (Krueger et al., 2000), social pressures (Liñán and Chen, 2009), competitive environments (Anggadwita and Mustafid, 2014), or governmental support (Anggadwita and Dhewanto, 2016). Entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control mediates the relationship between entrepreneurship education (Yurtkorua et al., 2014; Duong, 2021; Aga and Singh, 2022), access to finance, university environment, environmental barriers (Nguyen, 2020), perceived environmental factors (Dolce et al., 2018), entrepreneurial passion (Saboor et al., 2020) and entrepreneurial intention.

According to the social learning theory, this study held that entrepreneurial role models could enhance the level of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control of college students. In the process of interacting with entrepreneurial role models, college students find common or similar points in terms of entrepreneurial ability and entrepreneurial resources through comparison with entrepreneurial role models, so as to enhance their recognition of the feasibility of entrepreneurship. In addition, college students can observe or feel the attitudes, values and behavior patterns that are positively reinforced by the alternative results of entrepreneurial role models from the behaviors, suggestions and recommendations of entrepreneurial role models, and imitate them, thus enriching entrepreneurial knowledge and experience and improving entrepreneurial ability (Bandura et al., 1999). Empirical studies showed that entrepreneurial ability was positively associated with confidence in entrepreneurial ability (Mozahem and Adlouni, 2021). At the same time, confidence in their own entrepreneurial ability as a prominent feature of entrepreneurial role models is also observed, felt and imitated by college students. In addition, entrepreneurial role models can enhance college students’ confidence in entrepreneurial resources, since they provide college students guide and help on entrepreneurship. Nguyen (2020) found that individual perceived access to finance played significant roles in the development of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control.

To sum up, entrepreneurial role models can enhance college students’ confidence in entrepreneurial ability and resources, that is, they can enhance their entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control. Based on this, this study put forward the following hypotheses:

H2: Entrepreneurial role models are positively associated with college students’ entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control.

According to the theory of planned behavior, entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control is an important variable to predict entrepreneurial intention. Some empirical studies have proved that entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control is positively associated with entrepreneurial intention (Krueger et al., 2000; Sesen, 2012; Hui-Chen et al., 2014; Bux, 2016; Karimi et al., 2016; Utami, 2017). Those who have a more positive view of their abilities and resources view entrepreneurship more as an opportunity than a risk, which makes them more inclined to start a business.

Entrepreneurial desire is component of entrepreneurial calling. The research of Perugini and Bagozzi (2001) showed that entrepreneurial desire was the mediating variable of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial intention. And they found that entrepreneurial desire was the direct determinant of entrepreneurial intention and provided the direct impetus for entrepreneurial intention. Entrepreneurial desire has lower expressivity and behavioral connectivity than entrepreneurial intention (Perugini and Bagozzi, 2004).

In addition, entrepreneurial self-efficacy is an important component of entrepreneurial perceived behavior control. According to social learning theory, confidence in an individual’s own ability positively affects the evaluation of his activities and emotional experience (Bandura, 1986). Previous studies have already found connections between confidence in person’s own ability and emotions (DeMauro and Jennings, 2016; Hascher and Hagenauer, 2016; Mahler et al., 2017). Moreover, the empirical study of Cardon and Kirk (2015) showed that individuals were more inclined to identify with the activities they were confident to engage in, so as to realized self-identity; and the stronger the individuals’ confidence in the ability towards an activity was, the stronger the desire to engage in the activity was. The empirical study of Baum and Locke (2004) showed that the expectation of success brought about by individuals’ confidence in the ability to engaged in a certain activity would lead to their strong positive emotion for the activity.

It can be concluded from the aforementioned that the improvement of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control of college students can enhance the positive emotion about entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial identity and entrepreneurial desire, which is to say, the improvement of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control of college students can enhance their entrepreneurial calling.

To sum up, based on hypothesis 2, the following hypothesis was proposed in this study:

H3: Entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control mediates the association between entrepreneurial role models and college students’ entrepreneurial calling.

2.3. The moderating role of entrepreneurial hands-on practice

Entrepreneurial role model demonstration and entrepreneurial hands-on practice are two important ways of entrepreneurial practice education (Zozimo et al., 2017; Hou et al., 2019; Boldureanu et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2021; Lv et al., 2021; San-Martin et al., 2021; Li et al., 2022; Luo M. et al., 2022). Entrepreneurial hands-on practice includes simulated and actual entrepreneurial hands-on practice (Piperopoulos and Dimov, 2014). Entrepreneurship role model demonstration can help college students accumulate the indirect experience in entrepreneurship, while entrepreneurial hands-on practice can enrich college students’ direct experience in entrepreneurship.

In the process of entrepreneurial role models’ influencing entrepreneurial calling of college students, this study questioned whether entrepreneurial hands-on practice may play a positive role. This study thought that compared with those who had not participated in entrepreneurial hands-on practice, college students participating in entrepreneurial hands-on practice could enhance their intuitive understanding and first-hand experience of entrepreneurial activities and entrepreneurial environment, and improved their entrepreneurial knowledge, skills and ability. Furthermore, entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control significantly enhances entrepreneurial ability (Seikkula-Leino and Salomaa, 2020), and entrepreneurial ability significantly enhances entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control (Mozahem and Adlouni, 2021). Entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial ability can promote each other. To sum up, based on hypothesis 3, the following hypothesis was proposed in this study:

H4: College students’ entrepreneurial hands-on practice positively moderates the link between entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial calling.

On the basis of the above discussion, this study held that entrepreneurial role models were indirectly associated with entrepreneurial calling through the mediation of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control, while entrepreneurial hands-on practice played a moderating role in this process. That was, it was a moderated mediation model. Entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control mediated the association between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial calling, and the strength of the mediating role was moderated by entrepreneurial hands-on practice. Based on this, the following hypothesis was proposed in this study:

H5: College students’ entrepreneurial hands-on practice moderates the mediating role of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial calling.

2.4. The present study: A moderated mediation model

This study established the moderated mediation model to test these hypotheses (Figure 1). Firstly, the positive association of entrepreneurial role models with entrepreneurial calling was tested (Hypothesis 1). Secondly, the positive association of entrepreneurial role models with college students’ entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control was examined (Hypothesis 2). Thirdly, the mediating role of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control in the association of entrepreneurial role models with college students’ entrepreneurial calling was tested (Hypothesis 3). Fourthly, the positively moderating role of college students’ entrepreneurial hands-on practice in the association of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control with entrepreneurial calling was examined (Hypothesis 4). In the end, the moderating role of entrepreneurial hands-on practice in the mediating role of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial calling was tested (Hypothesis 5).

FIGURE 1

Figure 1. The mediated moderation model.

3. Method

3.1. Participants and procedure

This study was a survey. A preliminary survey was conducted among 20 college students in Beijing Technology and Business University 1 month before the formal survey, and the questionnaires were revised accordingly. Participants in this study were students of colleges and universities from China. A convenience sampling technique was used. The 2018 China Mass Entrepreneurship Index Report released by the Innovation and Entrepreneurship Research Center of Southwest Jiaotong University ranked China’s actual performance in innovation and entrepreneurship by region (Guo et al., 2022). To ensure the validity and generality of our results, we took into account the entrepreneurial regions of the surveyed colleges and universities when collecting data. Five surveyed universities (Tsinghua university, Renmin University of China, Beijing Technology and Business University, Shandong Science and Technology University and Ludong University) came from the top five entrepreneurial regions, including Beijing and Shandong; 10 surveyed universities (Shanghai Finance and Economics University, Shanghai Lixin Accounting and Finance University, Henan University, Hubei University, Geological University of China, Sichuan University, Tianjin University, Nankai University, Hebei University and Langfang Normal University) came from mid-ranking entrepreneurial regions, including Shanghai, Henan, Hubei, Sichuan, Tianjin and Hebei; and 1 surveyed college (Xinjiang Institute of Engineering) came from the bottom five entrepreneurial regions, including Xinjiang.

The investigation process is that firstly some teachers from aforementioned colleges and universities were communicated with, and then they organized college students to fill in the paper questionnaires during the break time after class. The paper questionnaires were divided into three parts. The first part includes respondent basic information questionnaire, entrepreneurial role models scale and entrepreneurial hands-on practice questionnaire. The second part is entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control scale. The third part is entrepreneurial calling scale. The questionnaires were coded to ensure that the respondents of the three parts are consistent. The respondents answered these three parts of the questionnaires every 3 months. 627 questionnaires were actually collected, and 519 valid questionnaires were obtained after removing invalid ones, with effective questionnaire recovery rate of 82.8%.

To decrease common method variance, a longitudinal survey was conducted. The survey process started with contacting 23 teachers from the above colleges and universities and asking them to invite students in the classes where they were the head teachers to participate in the survey. The paper questionnaires were divided into three parts. The first part includes respondent basic information questionnaire, entrepreneurial role models scale and entrepreneurial hands-on practice questionnaire. The second part is entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control scale. The third part is entrepreneurial calling scale. The questionnaires were coded to ensure the respondents of the three parts are consistent. The respondents answered these three parts of the questionnaires every 3 months and the study data was gathered at three points in time. In the process of data collection, the participants were promised that information related to themselves would be treated as confidential strictly. A total of 652 questionnaires were distributed and 627 questionnaires were actually collected. Eventually, 519 valid questionnaires were obtained after removing invalid ones, with valid questionnaire recovery rate of 79.6% compared to the number of distributed questionnaires and 82.8% compared to the number of collected questionnaires.

3.2. Sample characteristics

Among the 519 college students, 44.5 percent were male and 55.5 percent were female; 24.7 percent were freshmen, 21.4 percent were sophomore, 24.9 percent were junior, and 29.1 percent were senior (including senior five). In terms of native place, 54.9 percent of them came from urban areas and 45.1 percent from rural areas. In terms of majors, 44.1 percent majored in science and technology, 32.6 percent in economics and management, and 23.3 percent in other majors. In terms of college type, 27.7 percent of the respondents studied in national high-level universities, 26.6 percent in provincial key construction colleges and universities, and 45.7 percent in provincial general colleges and universities. In terms of region of college, 46.5 percent of them attended colleges and universities from the top five entrepreneurial regions of China, 22.5 percent attended colleges and universities from mid-ranking entrepreneurial regions and 31.0 percent attended colleges and universities from the bottom five entrepreneurial regions.

3.3. Measures

The scales of entrepreneurial role models, entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial calling, adopted in the present study, are mature scales. To ensure the accuracy of the translation, we used the back translation method (Breslin, 1970). Two postgraduates in the direction of the organizational behavior research translated the original English version of the scales into Chinese, then two other postgraduates in the same research direction back-translated the Chinese version of the scales into English, and then compared the original English version scales and the back-translated English version scales. After finding the difference between the two version scales, adjusted the Chinese version scales accordingly. The Chinese version scales were used in this questionnaire survey. All the scales were rated using 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). In addition, this study originally developed the entrepreneurial hands-on practice questionnaire and the respondent basic information questionnaire. The details are as follows.

3.3.1. Entrepreneurial role models

The variable “Entrepreneurial role models” was measured using the 5-item scale developed by Fellnhofer and Mueller (2018). Sample items included: “There is an entrepreneurial person I am trying to be like in my career pursuits” and “There is an entrepreneurial person particularly inspirational to me in my career path.” In this study, Cronbach’s Alpha value of this scale was 0.88.

3.3.2. Entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control

Entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control was measured using the 6-item scale developed by Liñán and Chen (2009). Sample items included: “To start a firm and keep it working would be easy for me” and “I know the necessary practical details to start a firm.” In this study, Cronbach’s Alpha value of this scale was 0.92.

3.3.3. Entrepreneurial calling

Entrepreneurial calling was measured using the 12-item scale developed by Dobrow and Tosti-Kharas (2011). Sample items included: ‘I am passionate about entrepreneurship’ ‘I enjoy being an entrepreneur more than anything else’ and ‘Being an entrepreneur gives me immense personal satisfaction.’ In this study, Cronbach’s Alpha value of this scale was 0.93.

3.3.4. Entrepreneurial hands-on practice

The entrepreneurial hands-on practice questionnaire was originally developed. The measured variables are binary variables, with “1” indicating having participated in the entrepreneurial practice personally (including entrepreneurial simulation competition, entrepreneurial simulation training, entrepreneurial park incubation project, venture fund support project, spontaneous entrepreneurship, etc.), and “0” indicating having not participated in the entrepreneurial practice personally.

3.3.5. Control variables

The possible control variables were investigated by the self-developed respondent basic information questionnaire. Since the respondents’ entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control was significantly negatively correlated with gender (r = −0.12, p < 0.01), major (r = −0.11, p < 0.01), and significantly positively correlated with native place (r = 0.11, p < 0.01), college type (r = 0.17, p < 0.01) and region of college (r = 0.26, p < 0.01); entrepreneurial calling was significantly negatively correlated with grade (r = −0.10, p < 0.05), and significantly positively correlated with college type (r = 0.12, p < 0.01) and region of college (r = 0.12, p < 0.01); entrepreneurial hands-on practice was significantly positively correlated with grade (r = 0.13, p < 0.01; see Table 1), in the subsequent statistical analysis process to confirm the theoretical model, the control variables, including gender, major, native place, college type, region of college and grade, were added to eliminate their influence on statistics results.

TABLE 1

Table 1. Descriptive statistics.

In this study, SPSS 26.0 and AMOS 22.0 were mainly used for statistical analysis.

4. Results

4.1. Common method bias test and multi-collinearity test

The data in this study were all self-reported. Although the questionnaires were filled in anonymously, and the data was promised to be kept confidential and only used for scientific research, there still might be common method deviation of the data. Therefore, the single-common-method-factor approach was adopted to test the common method deviation of the data. First, a confirmatory factor analysis model (see Three-factor model in Table 2) was constructed. Then, on the basis of the confirmatory factor analysis model, a method latent variable was added so that all the measurement items were loaded not only on the corresponding construct factor, but also on the method latent variable. The main fitting index of the new model was as follows: χ²/df = 3.398, CFI = 0.937, TLI = 0.921, IFI = 0.937, NFI = 0.913, RMSEA = 0.068, SRMR = 0.0434. Finally, the main fitting indexes of the two models were compared as follows: △CFI = 0.005, △TLI = 0.001, △IFI = 0.005, △NFI = 0.007, △RMSEA = 0.001, △SRMR = 0.017. It can be seen that the changes of these fitting indices were all less than 0.03, indicating that the original model was not significantly improved after the common method deviation latent variable was added, thus indicating that there was no serious common method deviation in the data. In addition, the tolerance of entrepreneurial role models, entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control, and entrepreneurial calling is between 0.472 and 0.997. Correspondingly, the variance inflation factor (VIF) was between 1.003 and 2.119, which was lower than the critical value of 2.5. Therefore, the degree of multi-collinearity among the variables in this study was relatively low.

TABLE 2

Table 2. Confirmatory factor analysis.

4.2. Reliability and validity test

As shown in Table 3, this study employed the Cronbach’s Alpha values and composite reliability (CR) to test the reliability. In this study, Cronbach’s Alpha values of the entrepreneurial role models scale, the entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control scale and the entrepreneurial calling scale were 0.88, 0.92, and 0.93, which all are greater than 0.80; the coefficients of CR range from 0.88–0.93, which all are greater than 0.70. The above data showed that these three scales have good homogeneity reliability.

TABLE 3

Table 3. Reliability and validity tests.

The average variance extraction values (AVE) of entrepreneurial role models, entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial calling were calculated by maximum likelihood estimation method, and were 0.60, 0.65, and 0.51 respectively, which all were greater than 0.5, indicating that these three scales had good convergent validity.

Confirmatory factor analysis was used to test the discriminant validity of the entrepreneurial role models scale, the entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control scale and the entrepreneurial calling scale. First, three models were constructed, which were three-factor model constructed by entrepreneurial role models, entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial calling, two-factor model combining entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control, and one-factor model combining the above three variables. Then confirmatory factor analysis was carried out for the three models. Finally compared the fitting indexes of these three models. The results showed that all the three-factor model’s indicators were dominant, and the model’s fitting index was the best (χ²/df = 3.349 < 5, CFI = 0.932 > 0.9, TLI = 0.922 > 0.9, IFI = 0.932 > 0.9, NFI = 0.906 > 0.9, RMSEA = 0.067 < 0.08, SRMR = 0.0604 < 0.08, see Table 2), indicating that these three scales had good discriminant validity.

4.3. Multivariate normal test

Kim (2013) stated that if the |skewness| > 2 or |kurtosis| > 7, the data did not form a normal distribution. Table 4 showed the skewness and kurtosis of each variable. The results showed that the sample presented a normal distribution. Additionally, if the variables form a multivariate normal distribution, the Chi-square and Mahalanobis distance plot will form a straight line (Nor, 2015). Figure 2 showed that the variables of this sample formed a multivariate normal distribution.

TABLE 4

Table 4. Skewness and kurtosis of each variable.

FIGURE 2

Figure 2. Chi-square and Mahalanobis distance plot.

4.4. Descriptive statistics analysis

As shown in Table 1, the mean of entrepreneurial role models, entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial calling of college students were between 3.5 and 4.5, meaning medium level. The proportion of college students who had participated in entrepreneurial hands-on practice was relatively small, accounting for 17%. The above data showed that there was great space to improve for college students in entrepreneurship role models, entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control, entrepreneurial calling and entrepreneurial hands-on practice.

Table 1 also showed that entrepreneurial role models were positively correlated with entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control (r = 0.30, p < 0.01), entrepreneurial calling (r = 0.30, p < 0.01) and entrepreneurial hands-on practice (r = 0.14, p < 0.01). Entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control was positively correlated with entrepreneurial calling (r = 0.24, p < 0.01) and entrepreneurial hands-on practice (r = 0.23, p < 0.01). Entrepreneurial calling was positively correlated with entrepreneurial hands-on practice (r = 0.18, p < 0.01). The significant correlation between these four variables provided preliminary support for the verification of the theoretical model, and showed that these variables could be further statistically analyzed.

4.5. Main role test

Hierarchical regression analysis was used to test the hypothesis of the direct association of entrepreneurial role models with entrepreneurial calling. Model 2 in Table 5 showed that entrepreneurial role models were positively associated with college students’ entrepreneurial calling (β = 0.296, p < 0.001), and hypothesis H1 has been verified.

TABLE 5

Table 5. Hierarchical linear regression analysis results.

4.6. Mediating role test

Hierarchical regression analysis was used to test the hypothesis of the mediating role of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial calling. Model 7 in Table 5 showed that entrepreneurial role models were significantly positively associated with entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control (β = 0.292, p < 0.001), and hypothesis H2 was verified. Model 2 and Model 3 in Table 5 showed that after incorporating entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control into the regression equation, the coefficient of association of entrepreneurial role models with entrepreneurial calling had dropped from 0.296 (p < 0.001) to 0.253 (p < 0.001), indicating that the association of entrepreneurial role models with entrepreneurial calling weakened. At the same time, entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control was significantly positively associated with entrepreneurial calling (β = 0.147, p < 0.01), indicating that entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control played a partially mediating role in the association of entrepreneurial role models with college students’ entrepreneurial calling, and hypothesis H3 has been verified.

4.7. Moderation role tests

Hierarchical regression analysis was used to test the moderating role of entrepreneurial hands-on practice between entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial calling. Firstly, the standardized entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial hands-on practice were multiplied to construct an interactive term. Then, taking entrepreneurial calling as the dependent variable, gradually introduce control variables, entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control, entrepreneurial hands-on practice, and interactive item of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial hands-on practice. Model 5 in Table 5 showed that the interactive term of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial hands-on practice were significantly positively associated with entrepreneurial calling (β = 0.137, p < 0.01), which means when college students had entrepreneurial hands-on practice, entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control were more strongly positively associated with entrepreneurial calling, and hypothesis H4 has been verified.

In order to further clarify the moderating role of entrepreneurial hands-on practice, according to the suggestion of Cohen et al. (2003), this study plotted simple slopes to show the relationship between entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial calling with and without entrepreneurial hands-on practice, as shown in Figure 3. The simple slope test result showed that the slope of the line with entrepreneurial hands-on practice (γ = 0.471, p < 0.001) was larger than the slope of the line without entrepreneurial hands-on practice (γ = 0.133, p < 0.01), indicating that perceived behavioral control was significantly positively associated with entrepreneurial calling regardless of entrepreneurial hands-on practice, and under the condition of entrepreneurial hands-on practice, entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control was significantly positively associated with entrepreneurial calling.

FIGURE 3

Figure 3. Entrepreneurial hands-on practice as a moderator between entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial calling.

4.8. Moderated mediation role test

In this study, the PROCESS in SPSS developed by Hayes (2013) was used to test the moderating role of entrepreneurial hands-on practice on the mediating role of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control. The results are shown in Table 6. When respondents had entrepreneurial hands-on practice, the indirect association of entrepreneurial role models with entrepreneurial calling through entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control was significant (b = 0.1193, Boot 95% CI does not include 0). When respondents had no entrepreneurial hands-on practice, the indirect association of entrepreneurial role models with entrepreneurial calling through entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control was not significant (b = 0.0180, Boot 95% CI includes 0), indicating that entrepreneurial hands-on practice moderated the mediating role of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial calling, and hypothesis H5 has been verified.

TABLE 6

Table 6. Results of moderated mediation model test.

Figure 4 showed the path coefficients in the moderated mediation model and the Cronbach’s Alpha values of the variable scales.

FIGURE 4

Figure 4. A moderated mediation model of the association between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial calling through entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control, entrepreneurial hands-on practice. Cronbach’s Alpha values and path coefficients are shown. ^**p < 0.01; ^***p < 0.001.

5. Discussion

The current study aims to assess the association between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial calling of college students through the mediating role of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and the moderating role of entrepreneurial hands-on practice based on the social learning theory, the theory of planned behavior and the entrepreneurial event model. All of the study hypotheses were confirmed.

H1 contends that entrepreneurial role models have significant positive association with entrepreneurial calling. That means as the exemplary role of entrepreneurial role models increases, college students’ entrepreneurial calling is enhanced. That is because passion for entrepreneurship, recognition of entrepreneurial value and entrepreneur identity are the defining characteristics of entrepreneurial role models (Zhang and Chun, 2018; Saboor et al., 2020; Wang and Jiang, 2021; Zhang et al., 2021). In the process of following and imitating entrepreneurial role models, college students will observe and learn these characteristics of entrepreneurial role models, develop entrepreneurial desire, and then their entrepreneurial calling will be strengthened. The previous studies have showed that entrepreneurial role models have significant positive association with college students’ aspirations of entrepreneurship (Meccheri and Pelloni, 2006). Entrepreneurial desire is the antecedent of an individual’s entrepreneurial intention (Shapero and Sokol, 1982; Peterman and Kennedy, 2003). Entrepreneurial role models have significant positive association with entrepreneurial intention (Fellnhofer, 2017b; Fellnhofer and Mueller, 2018; Van Trang et al., 2019; San-Martin et al., 2021). Therefore, the previous studies are aligned with the results of the current study. Thus, it can be seen that the more college students follow and emulate entrepreneurial role models, the stronger their entrepreneurial calling is.

H2 and H3 contend that entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control partially mediates the relationship between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial calling. The partially mediating role manifests that as the exemplary role of entrepreneurial role models increases, college students’ entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control intensifies, which then facilitates their entrepreneurial calling. That’s because in the process of following and emulating entrepreneurial role models, entrepreneurial role models can play exemplary roles and provide encouragement, guidance and help on entrepreneurship for college students, so college students will increase confidence in the ability and resources about entrepreneurship. And since entrepreneurship can meet college students’ demands including autonomy, competence and social connection (Al-Jubari et al., 2018), college students’ entrepreneurial calling will be enhanced. The previous studies have showed that entrepreneurial role models have significant positive association with entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control (Fellnhofer, 2017b; Fellnhofer and Mueller, 2018; Van Trang et al., 2019; San-Martin et al., 2021), and its similar variables, including entrepreneurial competence (Van Trang et al., 2019), and entrepreneurial perceived feasibility (Zozimo et al., 2017). Entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control is positively associated with entrepreneurial intention (Chien-Chi et al., 2020; Huang and Zhang, 2020). Entrepreneurial desire was the mediating variable of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial intention (Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001). Therefore, the past studies are aligned with the results of this study.

H4 and H5 contend that entrepreneurial hands-on practice moderates not only the positive association of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial calling, but also the mediating role of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial calling. The moderating role manifests that for college students with personal entrepreneurial practice, the improvement of their entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control can bring more enhancement of entrepreneurial calling. In addition, entrepreneurial role models can enhance their more entrepreneurial calling by improving their entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control. That’s because college students who participate in hands-on entrepreneurship practice can enhance entrepreneurial ability based on intuitive understanding and personal experience on entrepreneurial activities and entrepreneurial environment. This part of entrepreneurial ability cannot be replaced by that part of entrepreneurial ability based on indirect experience learned from entrepreneurial role models. Entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and this part of entrepreneurial ability promote each other, thus enhancing entrepreneurial calling. Calling is influenced by behavioral participation (Winner, 2000). The combination of college students’ direct experience from their own entrepreneurial experience and indirect experience from entrepreneurial role models can further promote entrepreneurial calling. The previous studies have showed entrepreneurial practice is positively associated with college students’ entrepreneurial intention (Huang et al., 2021; Wang J. et al., 2022). In the association between entrepreneurial theory education and entrepreneurial intention through entrepreneurial self-efficacy, entrepreneurial practice plays the moderating role (Wang J. et al., 2022). Entrepreneurship competitions are positively associated with college students’ entrepreneurial intention (Huang et al., 2021; Lv et al., 2021; Li et al., 2022; Wang J. et al., 2022). In the current study, entrepreneurship competitions belong to entrepreneurial hands-on practice. Therefore, the past studies are aligned with the results of this study.

5.1. Theoretical implications

This study has the following theoretical implications.

First, this research studies the association between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial calling based on the social learning theory. The results of this study support the discussion about entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial calling, and expand the application of the social learning theory. The study on the effects of entrepreneurial role models is a major theme of entrepreneurship education research. Previous studies have studied the influence of entrepreneurial role models on entrepreneurial intention, entrepreneurial behavior control, entrepreneurial competence, entrepreneurial feasibility, and entrepreneurial failure fear (Van Trang et al., 2019). This study advances the field by examining entrepreneurial calling - the important but neglected outcome variable. In our research, we view entrepreneurship as a vocation, different from previous studies, treating entrepreneurship as a general activity. Since calling is significantly positively correlated with occupational commitment (Sawhney et al., 2020; Jia et al., 2021; Direnzo et al., 2022) and career choice (Hirschi et al., 2018), that means cultivating college students’ entrepreneurial calling is valuable in entrepreneurship education. However, there is almost no research on entrepreneurial calling in entrepreneurship education so far. Considering that entrepreneurs have strong entrepreneurial calling (Tian et al., 2018), and entrepreneurial role model is an important factor affecting college students’ career exploration (Luo M. et al., 2022), we put forward and verify entrepreneurial role models are positively associated with college students’ entrepreneurial calling. This research also promotes the research of entrepreneurial calling.

Second, this research studies the mediating role of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control based on the social learning theory, the theory of planned behavior and the entrepreneurial event model. The findings of this study add to the understanding of planned behavior theory and the entrepreneurial event model, and relate them to the social learning perspective of entrepreneurship, thus contributing to the theoretical integration of entrepreneurship education. This study confirms the concept of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control covers that concept of recognition of entrepreneurship feasibility, entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control is an antecedent of entrepreneurial desire, and they all can be learned from entrepreneurial role models. Entrepreneurial role models are the objects that college students can follow on profession, but how they influence college students’ career development and career choice? This study supports college students can enhance their entrepreneurial calling through improving entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control in the process of following and emulating entrepreneurial role models. This study also expands the literature on how to enhance college students’ entrepreneurial calling.

Third, the study reveals entrepreneurial hands-on practice moderates the association between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial calling, expanded the literature on the relationship among entrepreneurial hands-on practice, entrepreneurial role models, entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial calling. For college students with hands-on practice of entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial role models have more influence on entrepreneurial calling through entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control. Entrepreneurial role models mainly improve college students’ indirect experience in entrepreneurship, while entrepreneurial hands-on practice mainly improves college students’ direct experience in entrepreneurship. The two mode of entrepreneurship practice education cannot replace each other, and instead need to be integrated. The results of this study suggest that sufficient research on entrepreneurial hands-on practice in the field of entrepreneurship education is necessary (Wu et al., 2022). In the past, the research in this area focused more on the entrepreneurial competitions, and the scope of entrepreneurial hands-on practice can be expanded in the future. The importance of increasing college students’ intuitive understanding and personal experience about entrepreneurship in entrepreneurship education can also be discussed in more depth.

5.2. Practical implications

The results of this study provide some useful and practical suggestions.

First, since entrepreneurial role models and college students’ entrepreneurial calling are positively associated, colleges and universities are suggested to increase entrepreneurial role models so as to enhance college students’ entrepreneurial calling. Specifically, colleges and universities can organize students to watch the documentary about the struggle of entrepreneurs, hire outstanding entrepreneurs as guest lecturers and business mentors. In addition, by building entrepreneurial culture and advocating entrepreneurial values, college students can be encouraged to spontaneously pay attention to entrepreneurs and actively seek out entrepreneurial role models.

Second, since entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control partially mediates the relationship between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial calling, the increase of college students’ entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control should be valued. In view of this, colleges and universities are advised to introduce measurement tools of college students’ entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control, and periodically monitor its level. At the same time, various measures should be taken to enhance the level of college students’ entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control. Specifically, colleges and universities can provide entrepreneurial resources for college students, such as establishing entrepreneurial education practice bases, providing entrepreneurial platforms, raising entrepreneurial funds, and so on. They also can exercise their students’ entrepreneurial ability through opening entrepreneurship courses (Zhong et al., 2020), introducing and setting entrepreneurship models, setting up entrepreneurship park incubation projects, promoting their students to participate in entrepreneurship simulation training and competitions and so on.

Third, since college students’ entrepreneurial hands-on practice strengthened not only the link between entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial calling, but also the indirect association between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial calling through entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control, colleges and universities are advised to actively expand the students’ entrepreneurial hands-on practice while they are trying to enhance the students’ entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control so as to promote entrepreneurial calling. Specifically, colleges and universities can provide or create more simulated and real entrepreneurship situations, and encourage the students to start their own business to promote their entrepreneurial hands-on activities.

5.3. Limitations and future directions

This study has several limitations that deserve scholarly attention in the future.

First, our study adopted convenience sampling method to collect data. Future research should use random sampling method to ensure representative sample so as to make generalizations more cautiously.

Second, in our study, the variables were measured from the same sources, which can bring about common method bias (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Although we employed longitudinal research method to try to mitigate the common method variance, the variance remains. To overcome this limitation, entrepreneurial calling can be measured from different sources, such as college students’ teachers or companions in future research.

Third, since there are differences between men and women in their attitudes, resources, knowledge, skills and other backgrounds about entrepreneurship (Dawson and Henley, 2015), male and female college students may respond differently to entrepreneurship education. Some studies have indicated there are gender differences in the relationship between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial intention (Entrialgo and Iglesias, 2018; Torres-Coronas and Vidal-Blasco, 2018). Future research needs to explore the gender differences in the relationship between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial calling.

6. Conclusion

This study proposed a moderated mediation model to unveil the relationship between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial calling of college students, and examined the mediating role of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and the moderating role of entrepreneurial hands-on practice in the model. The results showed a direct and positive association between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial calling. Furthermore, the partially mediating role of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control manifested that as entrepreneurial role models increased, entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control intensified, which then facilitated entrepreneurial calling. Moreover, the moderating role of entrepreneurial hands-on practice showed with entrepreneurial hands-on practice, not only the positive association of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial calling, but also the mediating role of entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control is stronger. This study innovatively discussed the mechanism and boundary condition of the association between entrepreneurial role models and college students’ entrepreneurial calling, took new exploration of the concepts and theories involved, and provided a new perspective for entrepreneurship education in colleges and universities.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors to qualified researchers upon reasonable request.

Ethics statement

Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent for participation was not required for this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.

Author contributions

DJ, XL, and FZ wrote the manuscript and analyzed and interpreted the data. DJ and ZW made significant contributions to the conception and design of the work and to the revision of the manuscript. All authors contributed to this article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

References

Aga, M. K., and Singh, A. (2022). The role of entrepreneurship education on student entrepreneurial intentions: mediating effect of attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. J. Bus. Manag. 28, 31–65. doi: 10.6347/JBM.202203_28(1).0002

Google Scholar

Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 50, 179–211. doi: 10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ajzen, I. (2002). Perceived behavioral control, self-efficacy, locus of control, and the theory of planned behavior. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 32, 665–683. doi: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2002.tb00236.x

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Al-Jubari, I., Hassan, A., and Linan, F. (2018). Entrepreneurial intention among university students in Malaysia: integrating self-determination theory and the theory of planned behavior. Int. Entrep. Manag. J. 15, 1323–1342. doi: 10.1007/s11365-018-0529-0

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Anggadwita, G., and Dhewanto, W. (2016). Women’s entrepreneurial intentions in micro and small enterprises (MSEs) in Indonesia: the influence of environmental factors on perceived behavioral control. J. Adm. Bus. Stud. 1, 1–7.

Google Scholar

Anggadwita, G., and Mustafid, Q. Y. (2014). Identification of factors influencing the performance of small medium enterprises (SMEs). Procedia. Soc. Behav. Sci. 115, 415–423. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.02.448

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Anwar, I., Thoudam, P., and Saleem, I. (2022). Role of entrepreneurial education in shaping entrepreneurial intention among university students: testing the hypotheses using mediation and moderation approach. J. Educ. Bus. 97, 8–20. doi: 10.1080/08832323.2021.1883502

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bagozzi, R., Baumgartner, J., and Yi, Y. (1989). An investigation into the role of intentions as mediators of the attitude behavior relationship. J. Econ. Psychol. 10, 35–62. doi: 10.1016/0167-4870(89)90056-1

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bandura, A. (1977a). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Google Scholar

Bandura, A. (1977b). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychol. Rev. 84, 191–215. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Google Scholar

Bandura, A. (1987). Self-efficacy. San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman.

Google Scholar

Bandura, A., Adams, N. E., Hardy, A. B., and Howells, G. N. (1980). Tests of the generality of self-efficacy theory. Cogn. Ther. Res. 4, 39–66. doi: 10.1007/BF01173354

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bandura, A., Freeman, W., and Lightsey, R. (1999). Self-efficacy: the exercise of control. J. Cogn. Psychother. 13, 158–166. doi: 10.1891/0889-8391.13.2.158

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Barsade, S. G. (2002). The ripple effect: emotional contagion and its influence on group behavior. Adm. Sci. Q. 47, 644–675. doi: 10.2307/3094912

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Baum, J. R., and Locke, E. A. (2004). The relationship of entrepreneurial traits, skill, and motivation to subsequent venture growth. J. Appl. Psychol. 89, 587–598. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.89.4.587

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bignetti, B., Santos, A. C. M. Z., Hansen, P. B., and Henriqson, E. (2021). The influence of entrepreneurial passion and creativity on entrepreneurial intentions. Revista de Administração Mackenzie. 22, 1–32. doi: 10.1590/1678-6971/eRAMR210082

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bird, B., and Jelinek, M. (1988). The operation of entrepreneurial intentions. Entrep. Theory Pract. 13, 21–30. doi: 10.1177/104225878801300205

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Boldureanu, G., Ionescu, A. M., Bercu, A. M., Bedrule-Grigoruță, M. V., and Boldureanu, D. (2020). Entrepreneurship education through successful entrepreneurial models in higher education institutions. Sustainability. 12:1267. doi: 10.3390/su12031267

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bosma, N., Hessels, J., Schutjens, V., Praag, M. V., and Verheul, I. (2012). Entrepreneurship and role models. J. Econ. Psychol. 33, 410–424. doi: 10.1016/j.joep.2011.03.004

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Breslin, R. W. (1970). Back-translation for cross-cultural research. J. Cross-Cult. Psychol. 1, 185–216. doi: 10.1177/135910457000100301

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Büssing, A. G., Schleper, M., and Menzel, S. (2019). Emotions and pre-service teachers’ motivation to teach the context of returning wolves. Environ. Educ. Res. 25, 1174–1189. doi: 10.1080/13504622.2018.1487034

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bux, S. (2016). “The effect of entrepreneurship education programs on the mind-set of south African youth” in A dissertation for partial fulfillment of the requirements of Ph.D. entrepreneurship (South Africa: Pretoria University)

Google Scholar

Cai, W., Gu, J., and Wu, J. (2021). How entrepreneurship education and social capital promote nascent entrepreneurial behaviors: the mediating roles of entrepreneurial passion and self-efficacy. Sustainability 13:11158. doi: 10.3390/su132011158

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Cardon, M. S., Gregoire, D. A., Stevens, C. E., and Patel, P. C. (2013). Measuring entrepreneurial passion: conceptual foundations and scale validation. J. Bus. Ventur. 28, 373–396. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusvent.2012.03.003

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Cardon, M. S., and Kirk, C. P. (2015). Entrepreneurial passion as mediator of the self-efficacy to persistence relationship. Entrep. Theory Pract. 39, 1027–1050. doi: 10.1111/etap.12089

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Celik, A. K., Yildiz, T., Aykanat, Z., and Kazemzadeh, S. (2021). The impact of narrow personality traits on entrepreneurial intention in developing countries: a comparison of Turkish and Iranian undergraduate students using ordered discrete choice models. Eur. Res. Man. Bus. Econ. :27. doi: 10.1016/j.iedeen.2020.100138

Google Scholar

Chen, X. P., Yao, X., and Kotha, S. (2009). Entrepreneur passion and preparedness in business plan presentations: a persuasion analysis of venture capitalists’ funding decisions. Acad. Manag. J. 52, 199–214. doi: 10.5465/AMJ.2009.36462018

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Chien-Chi, C., Sun, B., Yang, H., Zheng, M., and Li, B. (2020). Emotional competence, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and entrepreneurial intention: a study based on China college students’ social entrepreneurship project. Front. Psychol. 11:547627. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.547627

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., and Aiken, L. S. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Google Scholar

Da Palma, P. J., Lopes, M. P., and Alves, T. F. (2018). Entrepreneurship as a calling: a pilot study with aspiring entrepreneurs. J. Entrep. 27, 277–300. doi: 10.1177/0971355718781276

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Dawson, C., and Henley, A. (2015). Gender, risk, and venture creation intentions. J. Small Bus. Manag. 53, 501–515. doi: 10.1111/jsbm.12080

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

DeMauro, A. A., and Jennings, P. A. (2016). Pre-service teachers’ efficacy beliefs and emotional states. Emot. Behav. Diff. 21, 119–132. doi: 10.1080/13632752.2015.1120057

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Dik, B. J., and Steger, M. F. (2008). Randomized trial of a calling-infused career workshop incorporating counselor self-disclosure. J. Vocat. Behav. 73, 203–211. doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2008.04.001

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Direnzo, M. S., Tosti-Kharas, J., and Powley, E. H. (2022). Called to serve: exploring the relationship between career calling, career plateaus, and organizational commitment in the U.S. military. J. Career Assess. 30, 60–77. doi: 10.1177/10690727211011379

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Dobrow, S. R. (2013). Dynamics of calling: a longitudinal study of musicians. J. Organ. Behav. 34, 431–452. doi: 10.1002/job.1808

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Dobrow, S. R., and Tosti-Kharas, J. (2011). Calling: the development of a scale measure. Pers. Psychol. 64, 1001–1049. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.2011.01234.x

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Dolce, V., Molino, M., Cortese, C. G., and Ghislieri, C. (2018). Personality and social support as determinants of entrepreneurial intention. Gender differences in Italy. PLoS One 13, 1–19. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0199924

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Douglass, R. P., and Duffy, R. D. (2015). Calling and career adaptability among undergraduate students. J. Vocat. Behav. 86, 58–65. doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2014.11.003

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Duffy, R. D., and Sedlacek, W. E. (2007). The presence of and search for a calling: connections to career development. J. Vocat. Behav. 70, 590–601. doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2007.03.007

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Duong, C. D. (2021). Exploring the link between entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial intentions: the moderating role of educational fields. Educ. Train. 64, 869–891. doi: 10.1108/ET-05-2021-0173

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Engle, R. L., Dimitriadi, N., Gavidia, J. V., Schlaegel, C., Delanoe, S., Alvarado, I., et al. (2010). Entrepreneurial intent: a twelve-country evaluation of Ajzen’s model of planned behavior. Int. J. Entrep. Behav. Res. 16, 35–57. doi: 10.1108/13552551011020063

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Entrialgo, M., and Iglesias, V. (2018). Are the intentions to entrepreneurship of men and women shaped differently? The impact of entrepreneurial role-model exposure and entrepreneurship education. Entrep. Res. J. 8, 179–211. doi: 10.1515/erj-2017-0013

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., and Tesch-Romer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychol. Rev. 100, 363–406. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.100.3.363

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Falkenberg, I., Bartels, M., and Wild, B. (2008). Keep smiling! Eur. Arch. Psych. Clin. Neurosci. 258, 245–253. doi: 10.1007/s00406-007-0792-5

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Fellnhofer, K. (2017a). Entrepreneurship education revisited: perceived entrepreneurial role models increase perceived behavioural control. Int. J. Learn. Chang. 9, 260–283. doi: 10.1504/IJLC.2017.086856

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Fellnhofer, K. (2017b). The power of passion in entrepreneurship education: entrepreneurial role models encourage passion? J. Entrep. Educ. 20, 58–87.

Google Scholar

Fellnhofer, K., and Mueller, S. (2018). “I want to be like you!”: the influence of role models on entrepreneurial intention. J. Enterp. Cult. 26, 113–153. doi: 10.1142/S021849581850005X

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Franco, M., Haase, H., and Lautenschlager, A. (2010). Students’ entrepreneurial intentions: An inter-regional comparison. Educ. Train. 52, 260–275. doi: 10.1108/00400911011050945

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gibson, D. E. (2004). Role models in career development: new directions for theory and research. J. Vocat. Behav. 65, 134–156. doi: 10.1016/S0001-8791(03)00051-4

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Guo, R., Yin, H., and Lv, X. (2022). Improvisation and university students’ entrepreneurial intention in China: the roles of entrepreneurial self-efficacy and entrepreneurial policy support. Front. Psychol. 13:930682. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.930682

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hascher, T., and Hagenauer, G. (2016). Openness to theory and its importance for pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy, emotions, and classroom behavior in the teaching practicum. Int. J. Educ. Res. 77, 15–25. doi: 10.1016/j.ijer.2016.02.003

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. T., and Rapson, R. L. (1992). Primitive emotional contagion. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Google Scholar

Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

Google Scholar

Hennig-Thurau, T., Groth, M., Paul, M., and Gremler, D. D. (2006). Are all smiles created equal? How emotional contagion and emotional labor affect service relationships. J. Mark. 70, 58–73. doi: 10.1509/jmkg.70.3.58

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hieu, L. Q., and Loan, N. T. (2022). Role of entrepreneurial competence, entrepreneurial education, family support and entrepreneurship policy in forming entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial decision. Pak. J. Com. Soc. Sci. 16, 204–221.

Google Scholar

Hirschi, A., Keller, A. C., and Spurk, D. M. (2018). Living one’s calling: job resources as a link between having and living a calling. J. Vocat. Behav. 106, 1–10. doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2017.12.001

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hou, F., Su, Y., Lu, M., and Qi, M. (2019). Model of the entrepreneurial intention of university students in the pearl river delta of China. Front. Psychol. 10:916. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00916

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Huang, Y., An, L., Wang, J., Chen, Y., Wang, S., and Wang, P. (2021). The role of entrepreneurship policy in college students’ entrepreneurial intention: the intermediary role of entrepreneurial practice and entrepreneurial spirit. Front. Psychol. 12:585698. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.585698

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Huang, Y., and Zhang, J. (2020). Social media use and entrepreneurial intention: the mediating role of self-efficacy. Soc. Behav. Pers. 48, 1–8. doi: 10.2224/sbp.9451

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hui-Chen, C., Kuen-Hung, T., and Chen-Yi, P. (2014). The entrepreneurial process: An integrated model. Int. Entrep. Manag. J. 10, 727–745. doi: 10.1007/s11365-014-0305-8

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Jia, Y., Hou, Z. J., and Wang, D. (2021). Calling and career commitment among Chinese college students: career locus of control as a moderator. Int. J. Educ. Vocat. Guid. 21, 211–230. doi: 10.1007/s10775-020-09439-y

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Jiatong, W., Murad, M., Bajun, F., Tufail, M. S., Mirza, F., and Rafiq, M. (2021). Impact of entrepreneurial education, mindset, and creativity on entrepreneurial intention: mediating role of entrepreneurial self-efficacy. Front. Psychol. 12:724440. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.724440

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Karimi, S., Biemans, H. J., Lans, T., Chizari, M., and Mulder, M. (2016). The impact of entrepreneurship education: a study of Iranian students’ entrepreneurial intentions and opportunity identification. J. Small Bus. Manag. 54, 187–209. doi: 10.1111/jsbm.12137

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kim, H. Y. (2013). Statistical notes for clinical researchers: assessing normal distribution using skewness and kurtosis. Restor. Dent. Endod. 38, 52–54. doi: 10.5395/rde.2013.38.1.52

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kong, F., Zhao, L., and Tsai, C. H. (2020). The relationship between entrepreneurial intention and action: the effects of fear of failure and role model. Front. Psychol. 11:229. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00229

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Krueger, N. F. Jr., Reilly, M. D., and Carsrud, A. L. (2000). Competing models of entrepreneurial intentions. J. Bus. Ventur. 15, 411–432. doi: 10.1016/S0883-9026(98)00033-0

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Lau, P. L., Wilkins-Yel, K. G., and Wong, Y. J. (2020). Examining the indirect effects of self-concept on work readiness through resilience and career calling. J. Career Dev. 47, 551–564. doi: 10.1177/0894845319847288

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Lee, Y., Cortes, A. F., and Joo, M. (2021). Entrepreneurship education and founding passion: the moderating role of entrepreneurial family background. Front. Psychol. 12:743672. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.743672

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Li, G., Long, Z., Jiang, Y., Huang, Y., Wang, P., and Huang, Z. (2022). Entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurship policy and entrepreneurial competence: mediating effect of entrepreneurship competition in China. Educ. Train. doi: 10.1108/ET-06-2021-0218

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Liñán, F., and Chen, Y. W. (2009). Development and cross-cultural application of a specific instrument to measure entrepreneurial intentions. Entrep. Theory Pract. 33, 593–617. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-6520.2009.00318.x

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Liñán, F., Rodriguez-Cohard, J. C., and Rueda-Cantuche, J. M. (2011). Factors affecting entrepreneurial intention levels: a role for education. Int. Entrep. Manag. J. 7, 195–218. doi: 10.1007/s11365-010-0154-z

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Liu, F., Ma, J., and Li, R. (2005). Which role model is more effective in entrepreneurship education? An investigation of storytelling on individual’s entrepreneurial intention. Front. Public Health 10:837. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00837

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Liu, Y., Wang, W., Yuan, P., and Yuan, Y. (2021). Curvilinear relationship of entrepreneurial experience and entrepreneurial self-efficacy: entrepreneurial passion as a moderator. Soc. Behav. Pers. 49, 1–15. doi: 10.2224/sbp.10181

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Low, M. B. (2001). The adolescence of entrepreneurship research: specification of purpose. Entrep. Theory Pract. 25, 17–26. doi: 10.1177/104225870102500402

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Luo, L., Guo, M., Huang, J., and Yang, J. (2022). Research on the effect of an entrepreneurial environment on college students’ entrepreneurial self-efficacy: the mediating effect of entrepreneurial competence and moderating effect of entrepreneurial education. Sustainability 14:6744. doi: 10.3390/su14116744

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Luo, M., Zhao, L., and Lyu, B. (2022). Exploring the fuzzy integrated assessment of college students’ education for innovative entrepreneurship under the background of internet+. Sec. Com. Netw. 2022:9772, –12. doi: 10.1155/2022/4339772

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Lv, Y., Chen, Y., Sha, Y., Wang, J., An, L., Chen, T., et al. (2021). How entrepreneurship education at universities influences entrepreneurial intention: mediating effect based on entrepreneurial competence. Front. Psychol. 12:655868. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.655868

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Mageau, G. A., Vallerand, R. J., Charest, J., Salvy, S., Lacaille, N., Bouffard, T., et al. (2009). On the development of harmonious and obsessive passion: the role of autonomy support, activity specialization, and identification with the activity. J. Pers. 77, 601–646. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00559.x

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Mahler, D., Großschedl, J., and Harms, U. (2017). Opportunities to learn for teachers’ self-efficacy and enthusiasm. Educ. Res. Int. 2017, 1–17. doi: 10.1155/2017/4698371

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Majeed, A., Ghumman, A. R., Abbas, Q., and Ahmad, Z. (2021). Role of entrepreneurial passion between entrepreneurial attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and entrepreneurial intention: measuring the entrepreneurial behavior of Pakistani students. Pak. J. Comm. Soc. Sci. 15, 636–662.

Google Scholar

Maziriri, E. T., Maramura, T. C., and Nzewi, O. I. (2019). Determinants of entrepreneurial intention among generation Y students within the Johannesburg metropolitan area of South Africa. Afr. J. Bus Econ. Res. 14, 111–134. doi: 10.31920/1750-4562/2019/14n3a6

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Meccheri, N., and Pelloni, G. (2006). Rural entrepreneurs and institutional assistance: an empirical study from mountainous Italy. Entrep. Reg. Dev. 18, 371–392. doi: 10.1080/08985620600842113

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Mets, T., Raudsaar, M., Vahejõe, K., Kaseorg, M., and Vettik-Leemet, P. (2022). Putting entrepreneurial process competence into the focus in entrepreneurship education: experience from Estonian universities. Adm. Sci. 12:67. doi: 10.3390/admsci12020067

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Mónico, L., Carvalho, C., Nejati, S., Arraya, M., and Parreira, P. (2021). Entrepreneurship education and its influence on higher education students’ entrepreneurial intentions and motivation in Portugal. Braz. Adm. Rev. 18, 1–27. doi: 10.1590/1807-7692bar2021190088

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Morris, J. A., and Feldman, D. C. (1996). The dimensions, antecedents, and consequences of emotional labor. Acad. Manag. Rev. 21, 986–1010. doi: 10.5465/AMR.1996.9704071861

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Mozahem, N. A., and Adlouni, R. O. (2021). Using entrepreneurial self-efficacy as an indirect measure of entrepreneurial education. Int. J. Manag. Educ. 19:100385. doi: 10.1016/j.ijme.2020.100385

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Nguyen, T. T. (2020). The impact of access to finance and environmental factors on entrepreneurial intention: the mediator role of entrepreneurial behavioral control. Entrepr. Bus. Econ. Rev. 8, 127–140. doi: 10.15678/EBER.2020.080207

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Nian, T. Y., Bakar, R., and Islam, M. A. (2014). Students’ perception on entrepreneurship education: the case of university Malaysia Perlis. Int. Educ. Stud. 7, 40–49. doi: 10.5539/ies.v7n10p40

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Nor, A. W. (2015). The graphical assessment of multivariate normality using SPSS. Educ. Med. J. 7, 72–75. doi: 10.5959/eimj.v7i2.361

Google Scholar

Nowinski, W., and Haddoud, M. Y. (2019). The role of inspiring role models in enhancing entrepreneurial intention. Bus. Res. 96, 183–193. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.11.005

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Otache, I., Edopkolor, J. E., and Kadiri, U. (2022). A serial mediation model of the relationship between entrepreneurial education, orientation, motivation and intentions. Int. J. Manag. Educ. 20:100645. doi: 10.1016/j.ijme.2022.100645

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Otache, I., Umar, K., Audu, Y., and Onalo, U. (2021). The effects of entrepreneurship education on students’ entrepreneurial intentions: a longitudinal approach. Educ. Train. 63, 967–991. doi: 10.1108/ET-01-2019-0005

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Othman, N. H., Othman, N., and Juhdi, N. H. (2020). The mediating effect of emotion on entrepreneurship education and business opportunity recognition. Int. J. Bus. Soc. 21, 1479–1493. doi: 10.33736/ijbs.3365.2020

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Pablo-Lerchundi, I., Morales-Alonso, G., and Maria Gonzalez-Tirados, R. (2015). Influences of parental occupation on occupational choices and professional values. J. Bus. Res. 68, 1645–1649. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.02.011

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Perrewe, P. L., Hochwarter, W. A., Ferris, G. R., Mcallister, C. P., and Harris, J. N. (2013). Developing a passion for work passion: future directions on an emerging construct. J. Organ. Behav. 35, 145–150. doi: 10.1002/job.1902

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Perugini, M., and Bagozzi, R. P. (2001). The role of desires and anticipated emotions in goal-directed behaviors: broadening and deepening the theory of planned behavior. Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 40, 79–98. doi: 10.1348/014466601164704

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Perugini, M., and Bagozzi, R. P. (2004). The distinction between desires and intentions. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 34, 69–84. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.186

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Peterman, N. E., and Kennedy, J. (2003). Enterprise education: influencing students’ perceptions of entrepreneurship. Entrep. Theory Pract. 28, 129–144. doi: 10.1046/j.1540-6520.2003.00035.x

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Piperopoulos, P., and Dimov, D. (2014). Burst bubbles or build steam? Entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and entrepreneurial intentions. J. Small Bus. Manag. 53, 970–985. doi: 10.1111/jsbm

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Podsakoff, P. M., Mackenzie, S. B., Lee, J., and Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. J. Appl. Psychol. 88, 879–903. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Qu, S. H. (2021). Practical exploration on the integration of innovation and entrepreneurship education and professional education. Int. J. Sec. Educ. 12, 45–50. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.693216

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Saadat, S., Aliakbari, A., Majd, A. A., and Bell, R. (2021). The effect of entrepreneurship education on graduate students’ entrepreneurial alertness and the mediating role of entrepreneurial mindset. Educ. Train. 64, 892–909. doi: 10.1108/ET-06-2021-0231

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Saboor, M. J., Yousaf, I., and Paracha, A. (2020). Entrepreneurial passion and intention: creativity and perceived behavioral control as mediators. J. Manag. Sci. 14, 10–19.

Google Scholar

San-Martin, P., Perez, A., Fernandez-Laviada, A., and Palazuelos, E. (2021). The effect of role model teachers on students’ entrepreneurial competencies and intentions. Educ. Train. 64, 962–980. doi: 10.1108/ET-03-2021-0118

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Saptono, A., Wibowo, A., Narmaditya, B. S., Karyaningsih, R. P. D., and Yanto, H. (2020). Does entrepreneurial education matter for Indonesian students’ entrepreneurial preparation: the mediating role of entrepreneurial mindset and knowledge. Cogent Educ. 7:6728. doi: 10.1080/2331186X.2020.1836728

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Sawhney, G., Britt, T. W., and Wilson, C. (2020). Perceiving a calling as a predictor of future work attitudes: the moderating role of meaningful work. J. Career Assess. 28, 187–201. doi: 10.1177/1069072719848981

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Seikkula-Leino, J., and Salomaa, M. (2020). Entrepreneurial competencies and organizational change—assessing entrepreneurial staff competencies within higher education institutions. Sustainability 12:7323. doi: 10.3390/su12187323

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Sesen, H. (2012). Personality or environment? A comprehensive study on the entrepreneurial intentions of university students. Educ. Train. 55, 624–640. doi: 10.1108/ET-05-2012-0059

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Shapero, A., and Sokol, L.. (1982). The social dimensions of entrepreneurship. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Google Scholar

Soomro, B. A., and Shah, N. (2022). Entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, need for achievement and entrepreneurial intention among commerce students in Pakistan. Educ. Train. 64, 107–125. doi: 10.1108/ET-01-2021-0023

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Tian, X., Wu, Y., and Wang, Y. (2018). Career calling of nascent entrepreneurs in China: structure and measurement. Soc. Behav. Pers. 46, 695–704. doi: 10.2224/sbp.6656

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Torres-Coronas, T., and Vidal-Blasco, M.-A. (2018). The impacts of trait emotional intelligence and entrepreneurial self-efficacy on perceived behavioral control among undergraduate students. Int. J. Adult Vocal. Educ. Technol. 9, 47–58. doi: 10.4018/IJAVET.2018070105

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Türk, S., Zapkau, F. B., and Schwens, C. (2020). Prior entrepreneurial exposure and the emergence of entrepreneurial passion: the moderating role of learning orientation. J. Small Bus. Manag. 58, 225–258. doi: 10.1080/00472778.2019.1659678

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Uddin, M., Chowdhury, R. A., Hoque, N., Ahmad, A., Mamun, A., and Uddin, M. N. (2022). Developing entrepreneurial intentions among business graduates of higher educational institutions through entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial passion: a moderated mediation model. Int. J. Manag. Educ. 20:100647. doi: 10.1016/j.ijme.2022.100647

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Utami, C. W. (2017). Attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavior, entrepreneurship education and self-efficacy toward entrepreneurial intention university student in Indonesia. Eur. Res. Stud. 20, 475–495.

Google Scholar

Van Trang, T., Do, Q. H., and Luong, M. H. (2019). Entrepreneurial human capital, role models, and fear of failure and start-up perception of feasibility among adults in Vietnam. Int. J. Eng. Bus. Manag. 11:184797901987326. doi: 10.1177/1847979019873269

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Veciana, J. M., Aponte, M., and Urbano, D. (2005). University students’ attitudes towards entrepreneurship: a two countries comparison. Int. Entrep. Manag. J. 1, 165–182. doi: 10.1007/s11365-005-1127-5

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Venkataraman, S. (2012). “The distinctive domain of entrepreneurship research” in Intellectual roots of entrepreneurship research. eds. H. Landstrom and F. T. Lohrke (Cheltenham, United Kingdom and Northampton, Mass: Elgar), 228–247.

Google Scholar

Volery, T., and Mueller, S. (2006). “A conceptual framework for testing the effectiveness of entrepreneurship education program towards entrepreneurial intention” in The 51st ICSB world conference (Melbourne, Australia)

Google Scholar

Wang, J., Guo, Y., Zhang, M., Li, N., Li, K., Li, P., et al. (2022). The impact of entrepreneurship competitions on entrepreneurial competence of Chinese college students. Front. Psychol. 13:784225. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.784225

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wang, W., and Jiang, Y. (2021). Influence of entrepreneurial psychology and spirit on the cultivation of students’ entrepreneurial values and ability under the new media. Front. Psychol. 12:725610. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.725610

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wang, C., Mundorf, N., and Salzarulo-McGuigan, A. (2022). Entrepreneurship education enhances entrepreneurial creativity: the mediating role of entrepreneurial inspiration. Int. J. Manag. Educ. 20:100570. doi: 10.1016/j.ijme.2021.100570

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Winner, E. (2000). The origins and ends of giftedness. Am. Psychol. 55, 159–169. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.159

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Woollard, D., Zhang, M., and Jones, O. (2007). Academic enterprise and regional economic growth: towards an enterprising university. Ind. Higher Educ. 21, 387–403. doi: 10.5367/000000007783099836

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wu, L., Jiang, S., Wang, X., Yu, L., Wang, Y., and Pan, H. (2022). Entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial intentions of college students: the mediating role of entrepreneurial self-efficacy and the moderating role of entrepreneurial competition experience. Front. Psychol. 12:727826. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.727826

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Yang, J. (2013). The theory of planned behavior and prediction of entrepreneurial intention among Chinese undergraduates. Soc. Behav. Pers. 41, 367–376. doi: 10.2224/sbp.2013.41.3.367

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Yean, T. F., Johari, J., and Sukery, A. F. M. (2015). The influence of attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control on intention to return to work: a case of Socso’s insured employees Kajian Malaysia. J. Malaysia Stud. 33, 141–154.

Google Scholar

Yi, R., Lyu, B., Wang, H., and Huang, W. (2020). Entrepreneurial passion, entrepreneurial expectation and entrepreneurial decision-making among college students. J. Psychol. Afr. 30, 323–329. doi: 10.1080/14330237.2020.1796094

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Yin, M., and Wang, Y. (2017). Research on the effect of entrepreneurship education on college students’ entrepreneurial capability Eurasia. J. Math. Sci. Technol. Educ. 13, 5813–5819. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.843708

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Yurtkorua, S. E., Kuşcub, Z. K., and Doğanayc, A. (2014). Exploring the antecedents of entrepreneurial intention on Turkish university students. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 150, 841–850. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.093

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhang, Z., and Chun, D. (2018). Becoming entrepreneurs: how immigrants developed entrepreneurial identities. Int. J. Entrep. Behav. Res. 24, 947–970. doi: 10.1108/IJEBR-07-2016-0214

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhang, Y., Duysters, G., and Cloodt, M. (2014). The role of entrepreneurship education as a predictor of university students’ entrepreneurial intention. Int. Entrep. Manag. J. 10, 623–641. doi: 10.1007/s11365-012-0246-z

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhang, L., Zhou, X., and Shirshitskaia, E. (2021). Millennials’ entrepreneurial values, entrepreneurial symbiosis network and new ventures growth: evidence from China. Front. Psychol. 12:713280. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.713280

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhong, H., Yan, R., Li, S., and Chen, M. (2020). The psychological expectation of new project income under the influence of the entrepreneur’s sentiment from the perspective of information asymmetry. Front. Psychol. 11:1416. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01416

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zozimo, R., Jack, S., and Hamilton, E. (2017). Entrepreneurial learning from observing role models. Entrep. Reg. Dev. 29, 889–911. doi: 10.1080/08985626.2017.1376518

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar