Joseph Ouma Rasowo
Betty Nyonje2- 1Department of Environmental and Pure Sciences, Technical University of Mombasa, Mombasa, Kenya
- 2Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute, Mombasa, Kenya
- 3Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, University of Eldoret, Eldoret, Kenya
- 4Department of Curriculum Instruction and Media, School of Education, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya
Kenya is committed to the global efforts on climate change mitigation and adaptation as seen through investments in various sustainable green and blue economy projects. In this review paper, we present the current status of what has been done, particularly on the blue carbon offset initiatives undertaken in the mangrove and seaweed ecosystems as well as the decarbonization activities at the port of Mombasa and which should form reference information for local, regional, bilateral/multilateral partners, scientists and other climate change stakeholders. The blue carbon offset projects involve mangrove conservation, reforestation and carbon credit sale as well as seaweed farming. The initiatives have several unique features amongst which are the community-led income generation systems that simultaneously act as an inducement for ecosystem preservation, co-management and benefits sharing which are recipes for economic, socio-cultural, and environmental sustainability. A notable project impact is the conferment of economic power to the locals, particularly the women and the youth The model used embraces a collaborative approach involving multisectoral engagements of both the government, multilateral organizations, NGOs, and local communities. This integrated top-down (government) and bottom-up (local community) method deliberately targets the strengthening of economic development while ensuring sustainability.
1 Introduction
Global warming and the attendant climate change are worldwide challenges that are mainly driven by emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) particularly the carbon dioxide (CO2) (IPCC, 2022). GHG emissions keep on increasing due to unsustainable use of resources particularly energy, land use and land-use changes (IPCC, 2022). Other causes include lifestyles, consumption patterns, and methods of production within regions, countries and amongst individuals (IPCC, 2022). The incessant increase in CO2 emissions is a major threat to a sustainable environment as it is raising the temperatures and increasing weather anomalies in every region across the globe with heatwaves, floods, droughts and tropical cyclones a common occurrence (Clarke et al., 2022). Since the environment is a finite resource central to the survival of our planet and humanity, achieving environmental sustainability has become another international challenge in addition to climate change and its effects. As has been observed that carbon dioxide emissions are produced chiefly by the burning of fossil fuels, energy consumption is therefore considered a principal driver of climate change (Xue et al., 2021). Consequently, environmental sustainability therefore requires making a gradual transition from use of non-renewable energy sources (in the form of fossil fuel) to sustainable and low-carbon energy sources such as wind, geothermal, solar, and hydro energy (IRENA, 2020).
Although Africa is one of the lowest contributors (less than 10 percent) to global GHG emissions, its limited adaptation ability renders it one of the most susceptible continents to the effects of climate change (Wang and Dong, 2019; Bouchene et al., 2021; Trisos et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2022). It is worth mentioning that climate change and associated threats have a massive impact on the continent largely due to environmental and public health related challenges such as poverty, poor planning, disease burdens, illiteracy and corruption. Both Yameogo et al. (2021) and Aleman et al. (2017) further suggest that the weak policy environment around sustainable use of resources in the continent is another contributor to the continual increase in global warming and climate change. Indeed, global warming and the changing climate is already severely affecting key development sectors and infrastructure and impacting the social fabrics and livelihoods of millions of African families (Adekunle, 2021).
As is the case in most African countries, Kenya’s economy relies heavily on natural resource-related sectors which are extremely susceptible to climate change and variability (Government of Kenya (GoK), 2016). To address these vulnerabilities, the government, through various mitigation, adaptation, and resilience-building measures is promoting investment in sustainable resource efficient green development initiatives that use renewable energy while reducing GHG emissions (Government of Kenya (GoK), 2016). One such project is the Lake Turkana Wind Power Project, a wind farm which generates 310 MW of clean energy. Another project is the Olkaria Geothermal Development Company project generating over 500MW of clean energy from geothermal sources and which makes Kenya a pioneer in geothermal energy exploitation. As a consequence, in terms of climate change mitigation, up to 90% of Kenya’s energy generation is now from renewable sources (40% geothermal, 35% hydro-generated, 13% wind power and 2% solar). Furthermore, the country has embraced the M-Kopa Solar project which is providing affordable solar power to households all over Kenya thus helping reduce reliance on use of kerosene.
Like most countries participating in the REDD+ program, Kenya has developed a National REDD+ Strategy as required by the Cancun Agreement to UNFCCC (Government of Kenya (GoK), 2021; UN-REDD+, 2018) and implemented the “Greening Kenya Initiative” geared towards expanding the country’s forest cover to total 10% of its land areas. This project has seen the planting of millions of trees, which help to mitigate the effect of climate change by absorbing atmospheric carbon dioxide as well as promoting biodiversity. More recently, the country commenced the Kenya Climate-Smart Agriculture program which promotes sustainable farming practices that increase productivity, ensures food security and sustainable livelihoods while reducing GHG emissions and building resilience to climate change risks.
Kenya’s commitment to the pursuit of sustainable natural resource exploitation is further evidenced by signing and ratifying key multilateral environmental conventions, treaties, and agreements including United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Kyoto Protocol, and Paris Agreement. Furthermore, to demonstrate leadership in climate action, the country has enacted several climate-specific policies including; National Climate Change Strategy (2010), Climate Change Act (2016), Climate Finance Policy (2018), National Climate Change Action Plan 2018-2022 (which is a 5-year rolling plan), and National Adaptation Plan (2015-2030) which guides the climate actions of the National and County governments and other stakeholders. Others include; Energy Act 2012, Environmental Management and Coordination (Amendment) Act 2015, Green Economy Strategy Implementation Plan (GESIP) (2016-2030), and Vision 2030.
Kenya firmly believes that Blue Economy (BE) is an integration of green growth and sustainable development and essentially to promote social,economic, and community development (Government of Kenya (GoK), 2023) Taking cognizance of the BE potential for employment creation, alleviation of poverty, nutrition and food security, and its role as an economic driver (OECD, 2016; World Bank and United Nations, 2017; UN Habitat, 2018; United Nations Development Program (UNDP), 2018; Taillardat et al., 2018; AU-IBAR, 2019; Childs and Hicks, 2019; Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), 2020), the Government of Kenya (GoK) has made BE one of the key sectors to be prioritized in order to achieve the country’s long-term development blue print; the Kenya Vision 2030 (AU-IBAR, 2019; Rasowo et al., 2020). Recognizing the multiple ecosystem services provided by mangroves and associated blue carbon ecosystems, Kenya included blue economy (BE) climate commitments to the earlier land-focused (green economy) interventions in her updated Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and subsequently increased the target of abating its carbon emissions from 30 percent to 32 percent by 2030 (Government of Kenya (GoK), 2017a; GoK, 2020). In 2023, the country’s National Blue Economy Strategy 2023-2027 was formulated and aligned to the BE Strategies of the African Union (AU) and Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), (AU-IBAR, 2019; Government of Kenya (GoK), 2023).
In the past five years, Kenya has taken a global leadership role by spearheading various high-profile BE engagements. The country, in 2018, co-hosted with Canada and Japan, the first “Sustainable Blue Economy Conference”. Again, in collaboration with Portugal, Kenya co-hosted the 2022 UN Ocean Conference (UNOC) in Lisbon, Portugal. UNOC came up with the “Lisbon Declaration” which reaffirmed the support to the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 14 (referred to as Life below water), the Paris Agreement, and the implementation of UN Decade for Ocean Science (2020-2030). Furthermore, Kenya is currently the champion for the sustainable blue economy sector in the Commonwealth Blue Charter (Commonwealth Blue Charter, 2021). Meanwhile, Kenya is a key partner in the 14-member states of the High-Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy (referred to as The Ocean Panel), a panel which functions as a global pillar for sustainable BE undertakings. In December 2020, Kenya together with other members of the High-Level Panel, pledged to sustainably control 100% of the ocean area under their national jurisdiction by 2025. Furthermore, the GoK has pledged to create a network of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) encompassing 30% of its Exclusive Economic Zone by 2030.
In this review, we discuss the blue carbon projects being undertaken in the mangrove and seaweed ecosystems and the decarbonization initiatives at the port of Mombasa. We report on carbon offset projects that are integrating mangrove conservation and reforestation while incorporating the sale of carbon credit in the form of payment for ecosystem services. Notably, the seaweed farming is mainly for production of seaweed for food and for sale as a source of income. These two nature-based initiatives balance community livelihood improvement with conservation and are proof that environmental conservation and economic development can be achieved concurrently if well planned.
2 Carbon offset projects in the mangrove ecosystem
2.1 Overview of mangrove functions and uses
Mangroves are amongst the utmost productive ecosystems on planet earth and provide a myriad of valuable goods and ecosystem services to humanity and nature. These include; regulating (e.g. controlling floods, storms and erosion; stopping intrusion of salt water); habitat (e.g. habitat for spawning, breeding and nursery for various marine organisms, refuge for mammals, birds); provisioning (e.g. fruits, charcoal, timber, and fish); cultural services (e.g. sport, aesthetic), and global climate regulation through sequestering carbon dioxide (Lee et al., 2014; Alongi, 2020; Das, 2020; Menéndez et al., 2020; zu Ermgassen et al., 2020; Adame et al., 2021; Afonso et al., 2021; Macreadie et al., 2021; Quirost et al., 2021).
Together with saltmarsh, coral reefs, seaweed, and seagrass ecosystems, mangrove forests have been termed “blue carbon” ecosystems since they can store organic carbon (C) for a long period making them major contributors to marine C burial (Nellemann et al., 2009; Mcleod et al., 2011; Duarte et al., 2013; Macreadie et al., 2019; Jennerjah, 2020; Wang et al., 2020). Mangroves are of special interest since they amass and sequester relatively higher quantities of C than the other ecosystem types (Ezcurra et al., 2016; Atwood et al., 2017; Kauffman and Bhomia, 2017; Adame et al., 2018; Zeng et al., 2021; Chatting et al., 2022). According to evidences adduced from several studies, the high productivity combined with slow rates of decomposition in the soil significantly improves mangroves’ capacity to capture and eventually store organic carbon, especially in the soils (Bouillon et al., 2008; Alongi, 2012; Suello et al., 2022). Estimates by Atwood et al. (2017) indicate that organic carbon stowed in mangrove sediments up to a depth of 1 m, globally equates to 2.6 billion Mg of C. Furthermore, above-ground net primary productivity reported for mangroves (8.1 t DW ha−1 yr−1) match the records from highly productive tropical forests on land (11.1 t DW ha−1 yr−1) (Alongi, 2012; Cooray et al., 2021). Research on carbon stocks in the Kenya mangroves report an estimated range of 500-1000 t C ha-1 which is ten times higher than the average carbon content of terrestrial forests in the country (Huxham et al., 2015). Indeed, it is noteworthy that whilst covering only ca. 2 per cent of the world ocean, mangroves effectively account for over 10 per cent of the global carbon sequestration by the world’s oceans (Alongi, 2014).
World-wide, mangroves are faced with a myriad of threats particularly from organic and inorganic pollution, wanton deforestation, and sea-level rise with the leading drivers causing these threats being the rapid population growth, climate change, and infrastructural developments in coastal areas (Barbier et al., 2011; Giri et al., 2011). Mangrove conservation and restoration efforts including innovating financing instruments should be speeded up to save these natural blue carbon ecosystems and to ensure that the critical function of provision of goods and services are not destroyed (Laffoley and Grimsditch, 2009; UN Environment (UNEP), 2018).
2.2 Projects in the Kenya mangrove ecosystem
Mangroves occur throughout the coastal Kenya region starting from the north in Kiunga in the Kenya-Somalia border and up to Vanga at the Kenya-Tanzania boundary to the south (Figure 1). The forest inventory show that the mangrove forest area cover about 61,271 ha, 62% of which is found in Lamu County (Figure 2) (GoK, 2017b), and that all the nine species of mangrove recorded to occur in the region of the Western Indian Ocean are also found in Kenya namely: grey mangrove (Avicennia marina), oriental mangrove (Bruguiera gymnorhiza), tagal mangrove (Ceriops tagal), black mangrove (Lumnitzera racemosa), red mangrove (Rhizophora mucronata), apple mangrove (Sonneratia alba), cannonball mangrove (Xylocarpus granatum and Xylocarpus molucensus) and Heritiera littoralis. Unfortunately, the mangroves have experienced loss and degradation with the National Mangrove Ecosystem Management Plan estimating a loss of 40% of the mangroves occurring between 1990 and 2010 (FAO, 2016; GoK, 2017b; Kairo et al., 2021). However, Kirui et al. (2013) reported an annual net mangrove cover loss of 0.7% between 1985 and 2000 with the loss rate dropping to 0.28% between 2000 and 2010. Hamza et al. (2022) estimated a mangrove cover loss of 0.15% per year between 2010 and 2016 indicating a trend of gradual reduction in loss of forest cover (Gitau et al., 2023).
Figure 1 Mangrove restoration and conservation and Seaweed farming project sites in Gazi, Vanga, and Lamu (Adapted from Morara et al., 2015).
Figure 2 Lamu County is home to nearly 62% of Kenya’s mangrove forests (SOURCE: Lamu Marine Conservancy).
To further counter the mangrove forest loss and degradation, Kenya has launched several projects in the mangroves aimed at protecting and restoring mangrove forests through avoided deforestation and establishment of new mangrove plantations. Some of the projects have added the aspect of payment for ecosystem services (PES) aimed at providing long-term incentives for restoration and protection of the mangroves through selling blue carbon credits (Locatelli et al., 2014; Huxham et al., 2015). Additionally, the projects encompass establishing community-managed conservation zones and promoting alternative livelihoods such as ecotourism and crab farming. Appreciating the high demand for poles for building and fuelwood and in order to mitigate carbon leakage, the projects support the planting of fast-growing trees, mainly Casuarina spp (Casuarina equisetifolia), to create a maintainable supply of timber for construction, wood for fuel and income from their sale; thus, removing pressure from the mangroves. Here we report on three of such initiatives namely; the Mikoko Pamoja Project, the Vanga Blue Forest Project, and the Lamu Marine Conservation Trust Mangrove Project.
Mikoko Pamoja Project (MKP) is a community-based initiative located in Gazi Bay (Figure 1), some 50 km south of Mombasa in Kwale County. Gazi Bay has a total cover of 615 ha of natural mangrove forest. The forest has suffered major degradation in most areas while in some places total destruction has been recorded due primarily to its proximity to Mombasa city, which offers a quick market to sell mangrove timber (Dahdouh-Guebas et al., 2004; Kirui et al., 2013; Rideout et al., 2013; Musyoka, 2015; GoK, 2017a, b; Omondi, 2017; Plan Vivo Project Design Document (PDD), 2020). The project aims to reduce GHG emissions through protecting and restoring the mangrove forests in the Gazi Bay area. Since its inception in 2012, the project has conserved as well as planted over 117 hectares of mangroves with about 10 hectares out of the 117 ha being newly planted mangrove trees. The MKP is accredited, as per regulatory requirements, by the Plan Vivo System and Standard to trade up to 3000t CO2 for an initial 20-year period. The carbon credits generated by MKP are marketed and sold on the international voluntary carbon market through the Association for Coastal Ecosystem Services (ACES), a charity registered in Scotland (https://aces-org.co.uk/our-projects/). Benefits from the sale are ploughed back into the community to support various community projects including various small and medium enterprise that meet the needs of the Gazi community (Huff and Tonui, 2017; Murungi, 2017; Kairo et al., 2019; Vanga Blue Forest Project Design Document (PDD), 2019).
The Vanga Blue Project (VBF) launched in 2019 as a result of the huge success of MKP, is also located in the south coast of Kenya (Figure 1), approximately 110 km from Mombasa city. The project coverage encompasses the mangroves of Vanga, Jimbo, Kiwegu and Majoreni totaling about 4,428 ha (https://aces-org.co.uk/our-projects/). According to Omondi (2017), a major decline in forest cover in this locality occurred between 1991and 2016, changing the forest cover from 3685 ha to 3234 ha with the drivers of losses and degradation identified as population pressure, poverty and inequality, and poor governance. The VBF project has planted more than 1,000 native mangrove trees since its inception, with future plans to work with neighboring communities in Tanzania to restore mangrove forests along 140 kilometers of the East African coastline. VBF targets avoided emissions of over 100,379 t CO2-eq over the 20 years’ crediting period, which approximates to 5,019 t CO2 yr-1 from both the soil carbon and above and below-ground biomass carbon pools (Kairo et al., 2009; Cohen et al., 2013; Huxham et al., 2015; Gress et al., 2017; Vanga Blue Forest Project Design Document (PDD), 2019; Aigrette et al., 2021). Money produced from trading carbon credits is utilized in supporting community-initiated development projects in the area (Kairo et al., 2019).
In Lamu County, the Lamu Marine Conservation Trust (LaMCoT) and The Nature Conservancy, two non-profit organizations work to encourage sustainable and efficient management of marine and coastal resources in the county. The organization has implemented several projects aimed at conserving and restoring mangrove forests in Lamu County, including the establishment of community-based management systems and the promotion of alternative livelihoods such as eco-tourism and sustainable fishing.
3 Carbon offset projects in seaweed ecosystem
3.1 Overview of seaweed functions and uses
Seaweeds, also known as macroalgae, provide diverse ecosystem services such as; supporting (biogeochemical cycles, primary producer, biodiversity conservation, habitat for various organisms), provisioning (source of food, source of energy), cultural (recreation, aesthetics, heritage) and regulating (climate, eutrophication, biological) (He et al., 2008; Chung et al., 2011; Chung et al., 2013; Kraemer et al., 2014; Ferreira et al., 2021; Yong et al., 2022).
Previous exhaustive studies have shown that seaweeds provide bioremediation services as the dissolved nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon are abstracted by seaweed during growth then removed when the seaweed is harvested (Kim et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2017; Hasselstrom et al., 2018). Further studies have reported that seaweed reduces the hydrodynamic wave energy thus abating erosion of coastal areas from wave forces in addition to protecting tidal zones from erosion (Christianen et al., 2013). Furthermore, growing seaweed, directly on the seafloor in shallow areas or on ropes suspended off the bottom normally in deep areas, adds complexity to growth environment, normally creating a three-dimensional habitat which offers refuge plus more surface for settlement for other organisms as well as more feeding and more nursery areas for a greater diversity of associated marine and terrestrial organisms (Smale et al., 2013).
Seaweed can be used as direct food for human consumption or can be processed into other food additives, animal feeds, medicines, pharmaceuticals, fertilizers and cosmetics among other products (McHugh, 2003; Bixler and Porse, 2011; Wells et al., 2016; Anis et al., 2017). Related research has reported that seaweed species are rich in bio compounds majorly proteins, dietary fibers, proteins, and lipids and contain bioactive elements with a broad range of applications (Fleurence, 2004; Sánchez-MaChado et al., 2004; Macartain et al., 2007; Mišurcová et al., 2011; Pereira et al., 2011). Furthermore, they contain vitamins A (beta carotene), K, B12, and C in addition to being rich in potassium, iron, calcium, iodine and magnesium. From a practical perspective, the very high iodine content of the macroalga makes them ideal for tackling malnutrition in children and pregnant women. Meanwhile, according to the research conducted by Demarco et al. (2022) and Barbier et al. (2019), seaweed contains polyphenols and essential fatty acids since the principal components of their cell membranes are polyunsaturated fatty acids, principally omega 3 (ω-3) and omega (ω-6) although their bioavailability is not clear and is still an area of research. In addition, many studies have enumerated several other properties of seaweed to include anti-cancer, anti-fungal, anti-viral, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, immune-modulatory, anticoagulant, anti-inflammatory, anti-parasitic, and antioxidant among others (Smit, 2004; Mayer et al., 2013; Barbosa et al., 2014; Besednova et al., 2015; Ruan, 2018) consequently making seaweeds beneficial to human health. Seaweeds are routinely used by the cosmetic industry as coloring agents, stabilizers, emulsifiers and are also a source of different compounds used in the skincare sector (Yuan and Athukorala, 2011; Pimentel et al., 2017). Recently, Guillerme et al. (2017) reported that seaweed produce compounds that absorb UV rays, such as mycosporin-like amino acids, phenolics, carotenoids and terpenes, that are normally useful photo-protective elements for the formulation of sunscreen products.
Seaweeds are able to sequester atmospheric CO2 and the surrounding seawater through the process of photosynthesis (Krause-Jensen and Duarte, 2016). During photosynthesis, they absorb CO2 and convert it into organic matter and in the process release oxygen into the surrounding environment. The organic matter produced by the seaweed is used for growth, or can be buried in the sediment at the bottom of the ocean, effectively removing atmospheric carbon and storing it for a long-time duration. In addition to sequestering carbon, seaweed farming has many other environmental benefits, including improving water quality, providing habitat for marine life, and reducing the impact of ocean acidification (Krause-Jensen et al., 2015; Mongin et al., 2016). Ocean acidification is an increasing threat to all the marine ecosystems as decreasing pH levels interferes with the life processes of most marine species.
3.2 Seaweed farming projects in Kenya
After an extensive study of the seaweed resources of Kenya, over 380 species have been documented (Moorjani, 1977; Yarish and Wamukoya, 1990; Oyieke, 1998; Coppejans et al., 2000) with several of the species found to be potential candidates for farming namely: the carrageenophytes Eucheuma spp., Kappaphycus spp. and Hypnea spp.; the agarophytes, Gracilaria spp. and Gelidium spp.; and the alginophytes Sargassum sp Turbinaria spp. and Cystoseira spp. (Wakibia et al., 2006; Wakibia et al., 2011; Nyundo, 2017; Ollando et al., 2019). The first seaweed farms of Eucheuma denticulatum and Kappaphycus alvarezii were started in 2010.
Currently, seaweed farming is established in Kwale County with farms concentrated in 10 villages situated in Gazi, Nyumba Sita, Tumbe, Funzi Island, Mwambao, Mkwiro, Jimbo, and Kibuyuni. (Figure 1) The most common technique of seaweed cultivation is the peg and line (off-bottom) monoline method, which involves tying seaweed seedlings to monofilament polypropylene ropes (lines) with the main lines tightly stretched amid two wooden pegs (stakes) drilled securely to the seafloor. Other farming practices including the raft, the net, broadcasting, and floating long-line methods are still being piloted (Kimathi et al., 2018; Nyamora et al., 2018; Brugere et al., 2020; Garcia-Poza et al., 2020; Msuya et al., 2022).
Farming cycles are aligned to the tidal cycles with the farmers working in the farms during the low tides. Low tides occur fortnightly each month and each low tide takes seven days; hence farmers work on their farms for about 10-14 days each month. The planted crop is harvested after 6 weeks of growth (Overbeeke et al., 2020; Msuya et al., 2022). This relatively short cycle of production lasting 6 weeks allows for a fairly quick return on investment and subsequently in a regular income to the farmers. Farming is carried out year-round although the yields are highest when conditions are good during the inter-monsoon season from March through to early May and are low from June to mid-August, during the South-East Monsoon when conditions are not so favorable due to extreme wind and rough sea conditions. Normally, the water temperatures are relatively high from December to February, so farmers halt production until the rainy season (Msuya and Porter, 2014; Largo et al., 2020; Overbeeke et al., 2020). On average, farmers produce 300 - 500kg per each production cycle and are paid between US$ 0.2 and US$ 0.25/kg for dry seaweed product, yielding on average total revenues ranging between US$ 70 – 115 every six weeks during production seasons (Odhiambo et al., 2020; Msuya et al., 2022). This price is averagely high for the farmers considering the opportunity costs and the fact that the farming is not a full-time engagement.
4 Decarbonization through greening Kenya’s ports
Maritime transport is the lifeblood of the global trade and the manufacturing supply chain , carrying over 90% of global commercial goods (World Bank, 2023). Shipping is particularly important for Kenya with the ports of Mombasa and Lamu playing a strategic role in the national and international trade as well as serving an extensive hinterland comprising Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, Southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia. The ports lie in a very busy shipping route with a majority of international ships spending time in Kenyan waters or docked at the ports. However, maritime transport is highly polluting as ships use carbon heavy fuels to power their engines (International Maritime Organization (IMO), 2018).
Kenya has shown its commitment as a member of International Maritime Organization (IMO) by signing the International Maritime Organizations Initial Strategy on Reduction of GHG Emissions from Ships. This strategy targets to reduce GHG emitted from the shipping sector by 50% by 2050 as compared to the levels of 2008 and also includes the goal of reducing carbon intensity in ships by 40% by 2030 (International Maritime Organization (IMO), 2018). Furthermore, after acknowledging that the port of Mombasa (Figure 1) produces high concentration of GHG emissions from ships that are docked at the port as well as from trucks and vehicles hauling cargo, Kenya has taken steps to green the port by undertaking several decarbonization projects. In 2020, the GoK launched the “Greening of Ports” project in Mombasa aimed at reducing GHG emissions related to its port’s operations. Kenya Ports Authority (KPA), the government parastatal charged with managing the ports, has developed and is implementing an elaborate Green Port Policy (GPP) aimed at transforming the Kenyan ports into ports of clean fuels and which purposes to allow only new technologies and equipment that use clean fuel to operate at the port. Consequently, KPA is implementing cold ironing at the port after installing a 10MW solar photo-voltaic plant for the generation of renewable energy shore power to provide electrical power at the berths for ships calling at the harbor. As per the GPP, all ships calling at the port of Mombasa are to be compelled to switch off their auxiliary diesel engines and power their vessels using shore electric power while docked. Normally, ships emit enormous amounts of carbon dioxide from their diesel engines while discharging cargo and the switching to shore solar electricity- power to supply clean energy is recommended as best practice for green ports. By embracing green technology particularly the switch to electric cranes, and by aggressively investing in equipment modernization and upgrade, efficiency at the port of Mombasa has greatly improved with the turn-around time for ships calling at the port of Mombasa currently standing at an impressive 2 days only (World Bank, 2023; Kenya Ports Authority Magazine (KPA), 2023).
The shipbuilding sector holds great promise as a future growth area for Kenya's economy. To cater for the increasing demand of shipbuilding and repair services within the country and the region, while helping decarbonise this industry, the government, through public and private partnerships (e.g., Kenya Shipyards Limited), is supporting initiatives that embrace green shipping technology in its production. One example is the use of wind-assisted propulsion technologies (European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA), 2023) inspired in the ancient technology of wind sails.
5 Discussion and conclusion
As part of the strategies aimed at limiting the rising global temperatures and the reduction of man-induced CO2 emissions, most countries have committed to the aspirations of the Paris Climate Agreement which provides for a climate neutral world by 2050 (IPCC, 2022). Achieving climate neutrality entails reducing GHG emissions as much as possible and then offsetting any residual emissions by investing in projects that actively remove atmospheric carbon dioxide including afforestation, reforestation, and carbon capture and storage technologies until net-zero point is reached.
Through its mangrove conservation and restoration and PES projects, Kenya has been able to trade the carbon in the international market as certified carbon credits. Indeed, with over ten carbon credit projects in the country, most of which involve forest cover restoration or protection, Kenya has been hailed as a continent leader in carbon credit markets (Rasowo et al., 2020). However of late, using carbon credit markets to finance adaptation and mitigation activities is facing criticism on a global scale and their future as a sustainable source of climate finance particularly for Africa and other developing countries is not bright. Arguably, carbon markets appear to legitimize the pollution by the big polluters while seemingly appeasing the low-polluting and unindustrialized nations. It is also debatable whether the revenues that the carbon credit markets earn the developing nations are enough to compensate for the losses and damage caused by climate change which they have contributed least to.
Kenya is in an ecological deficit thus the mangrove conservation and restoration mitigates by reducing Kenya’s production footprints while increasing its biocapacity (Marti and Puertas, 2020). Additionally, non-deforestation and forest conservation provides a range of benefits to an ecological deficit country like Kenya by protecting biodiversity, mitigating climate change, regulating water cycles, conserving soil resources, and providing social and economic benefits.
The incomes realized from sale of carbon credit and the sale of seaweed has resulted in financial resilience in the local coastal community, increased the community’s capacity towards climate adaptation, and decreased their dependence on the limited local resources. Indeed, research by Rimmer et al. (2021) show that financial betterments precipitate wider economic benefits which eventually build the community’s capacity to adapt to climate change. In general, the projects have diversified livelihood opportunities for the communities whose main source of income, primarily, was fishing. Furthermore, diversification has been shown to be a critical factor for building household economic resilience (Rimmer et al., 2021). In addition to climate mitigation and adaptation, the above projects generate multiple benefits to the community including supporting education services, improving sanitation, provision of clean water, shoreline protection, and various mangrove-based livelihood enterprises (e.g. in bee-keeping, crab farming, small-scale farming, mangrove ecotourism, agroforestry).
Seaweed farming, in particular, has proven attractive to the rural coastal communities due to the low barriers to farmer entry, relatively low cost of input, short cycles of production thus providing regular income, low-technology, and relatively easy to master best farming practices. Since seaweed is produced throughout the year and does not need full-time care (relatively low labor requirement), the farming not only ensures constant cash flow, but also creates supplemental rather than replacement income, hence an appropriate alternative livelihood option to the coastal households (Msuya, 2013; Hurtado and Msuya, 2017). Because of the unique characteristics enumerated above, seaweed farming is a more female-oriented activity with over 90% of the current farmers being women (ODINAFRICA, 2020; Msuya et al., 2022).
In order to expand production space and volumes, the government is mapping the whole Kenya coastline to identify more zones that are ideal for seaweed farming with the aim of expanding production space and volumes produced. In addition, the government is funding infrastructural development in the form of good road networks, electricity, water, education, housing, healthcare facilities (Mirera et al., 2020) and training the farmers on entrepreneurial skills including making business plans, market intelligence as well as on value addition processes and technologies as a strategy to enhance economic returns and sustainability. Further government support is through development of coherent policies on conservation, and setting up frameworks and programs that strengthen governance while promoting equality and inclusion.
These Blue Economy projects are unique in that they have embraced a collaborative approach involving a multisectoral engagement of both the GoK, NGOs, international and the local communities. The integrated top-down (GoK) and bottom-up (local community) management model adopted has deliberately targeted the strengthening of economic development while taking cognizance of sustainability (Baker and Mehmood, 2013; Okafor-Yarwood et al., 2020). Studies have documented that a collaborative approach that emancipates the locals by ensuring their involvement in the processes of decision making and management, results in social equity, better economic outcomes, and ecological sustainability (Simane and Zaitchik, 2014; Butler et al., 2015; Mackenzie et al., 2019; Chen et al., 2020). In a related study, El Asmar et al. (2012) further show that when stakeholders are all involved equally in the project’s implementation, it makes them take ownership of the project message eventually ensuring sustainability. Furthermore, the component of education and capacity building particularly of the local partners in a project ensures that the community gain adequate skills to run the project on their own at the end of the project contract period. Government engagements at county, national and international levels jointly with the civil society and private sector can play a critical role in aiding and accelerating development pathways geared towards climate resilience and sustainable development in local communities. This is even more effective when activities, financing, and decision-making processes are integrated across all the various governance levels, the sectors, and the timeframes (IPCC, 2022).
From the experiences gained from the activities undertaken at the port of Mombasa, greening a port requires not only investment in modern equipment that does not consume fossil fuel but also the dedicated participation of all value-chain actors including the government, port managers, terminal operators, ship owners and operators, cargo owners, logistics companies, and the communities around the port. In addition, it requires increased efficiency in the form of short turn-around time for ships in the docks since the longer the ships spend floating in the docks, the more GHC gases they emit in the surrounding environment. In general, decarbonizing the shipping sector needs a combination of technological, regulatory and economic approaches including: utilizing renewable energy sources to generate electricity for on board systems, shifting from fossil fuels to low-carbon green fuels, improving the energy efficiency of vessels, and using more efficient propulsion systems to reduce fuel consumption (International Maritime Organization (IMO), 2018). IMO has already established global targets to reduce emissions from the shipping sector but the individual governments do have the leeway to adopt stricter regulations for ships operating in their waters (International Maritime Organization (IMO), 2018).
In conclusion, the observed outcomes of the projects reveal that they are significantly impactful while contributing to the improvement of the livelihoods of the local communities and in particular, conferring economic empowerment to the women whose livelihoods would otherwise depend solely on their husbands. BE needs compliance with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 (Life below water). It is noteworthy that both the mangrove conservation and seaweed farming ventures address problems associated with the realization of several of the UN SDGs in addition to SDG 14 namely; SDG 1(No poverty), SDG 2 (End hunger), SDG 4(Quality education), SDG 5 (Gender equality), SDG 6(Clean water and sanitation), SDG 8 (Sustainable economic growth), SDG 13 (Action to combat climate change), and SDG 15 (Life on land). Kenya’s “Green Growth Economy Strategy” and the “Blue Economy Strategy” policy documents are part of the country’s effort to realize the bigger circular economy principle which is part of the SDG 12 (Sustainable consumption and production).
Author contributions
Conceptualization, writing plus editing of this manuscript was undertaken by all the five authors: JR, BN, RO, PO and SO. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
Funding
The author(s) declare financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. JR received financial support through the annual Research Funding of Technical University of Mombasa, Kenya.
Acknowledgments
We like to thank Technical University of Mombasa (TUM) for the financial support. Furthermore, we acknowledge the Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute, University of Eldoret and Moi University for logistical support.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
References
Adame M. F., Brown C. J., Bejarano M., Herrera-Silveira J. A., Ezcurra P., Kauffman J. B., et al. (2018). The undervalued contribution of mangrove protection in Mexico to carbon emission targets. Conserv. Lett. 11, e12445. doi: 10.1111/conl.12445
Adame M. F., Connolly R. M., Turschwell M. P., Lovelock C. E., Fatoyinbo T., Lagomasino D., et al. (2021). Future carbon emissions from global mangrove forest loss. Glob. Change Biol. 27, 2856–2866. doi: 10.1111/gcb.15571
Adekunle I. A. (2021). On the search for environmental sustainability in Africa. role governance. Environ. Sci. pollut. Res. 28, 14607–14620. doi: 10.1007/s11356-020-11432-5
Afonso F., Félix P. M., Chainho P., Heumüller J. A., de Lima R. F., Ribeiro F., et al. (2021). Assessing ecosystem services in mangroves: insights from são tomé Island (Central Africa). Front. Environ. Sci. 9. doi: 10.3389/fenvs.2021.501673
Aigrette L., Alban M., Chevallier R., Crooks S., Emmer I., Giovannoni L., et al. (2021). Blue Forests Solutions: Version 2.0.
Aleman J. C., Jarzyna M. A., Staver A. C. (2017). Forest extent and deforestation in tropical Africa since 1900. Nat. Ecol.Evol. 2, 26–33. doi: 10.1038/s41559-017-0406-1
Alongi D. M. (2012). Carbon sequestration in mangrove forests. Carbon Manage. 3, 313–322. doi: 10.4155/cmt.12.20
Alongi D. M. (2014). Carbon cycling and storage in mangrove forests. Ann. Rev. Mar. Sci. 6, 195–219. doi: 10.1146/annurev-marine-010213-135020
Alongi D. M. (2020). Global significance of mangrove blue carbon in climate change mitigation (Version 1). Science 2, 57. doi: 10.3390/sci2030057
Anis M., Ahmed S., Hasan M. (2017). Algae as nutrition, medicine and cosmetic: the forgotten history, present status and future trend. World J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci. 6, 1934–1959. doi: 10.20959/wipps20176-9447
Atwood T. B., Connolly R. M., Almahasheer H., Carnell P. E., Duarte C. M., Lewis C. J. E., et al. (2017). Global patterns in mangrove soil carbon stocks and losses. Nat. Clim. Change 7, 523–528. doi: 10.4236/as.2015.63031
AU-IBAR. (2019). Africa Blue Economy Strategy. (Nairobi Kenya: Africa Union-Inter African Bureau for Animal Resources). Available at: www.au-ibar.org.
Baker S., Mehmood A. (2013). Social innovation and the governance of sustainable places. Local Environ. 20, 321–334. doi: 10.1080/13549839.2013.842964
Barbier M., Charrier B., Araujo R., Holdt S. L., Jacquemin B., Rebours C. (2019). “PEGASUS-PHYCOMORPH European guidelines for a sustainable aquaculture of seaweeds,” in COST Action FA1406 (Roscoff, France: European Cooperation in Science and Technology). doi: 10.201411/2c3w-yc73
Barbier E. B., Hacker S. D., Kennedy C., Koch E. W., Stier A. C., Silliman B. R. (2011). The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services. Ecol. Monogr. 81, 169–193. doi: 10.1890/10-1510.1
Barbosa M., Valentão P., Andrade P. B. (2014). Bioactive compounds from macroalgae in the new millennium: Implications for neurodegenerative diseases. Mar. Drugs 12, 4934–4972. doi: 10.3390/md12094934
Besednova N. N., Zaporozhets T. S., Somova L. M., Kuznetsova T. A. (2015). Review: Prospects for the use of extracts and polysaccharides from marine algae to prevent and treat the diseases caused by Helicobacter pylori. Helicobacter 20, 89–97. doi: 10.1111/hel.12177
Bixler H. H. J., Porse H. (2011). A decade of change in the seaweed hydrocolloids industry. J. Appl. Phycology 23, 321–335. doi: 10.1007/s10811-010-9529-3
Bouchene I., Cassim Z., Engel H., Jayaram K., Kendall A. (2021). Green Africa: A Growth and Resilience Agenda for the Continent (Bucharest, Romania: McKinsey & Company).
Bouillon S., Borges A. V., Castañeda-Moya E., Diele K., Dittmar T., Duke N. C., et al. (2008). Mangrove production and carbon sinks: a revision of global budget estimates. Global Biogeochem. Cy. 22, GB2013. doi: 10.1029/2007GB003052
Brugere C., Msuya F. E., Jiddawi N., Nyonje B., Maly R. (2020). Can innovation empower? Reflections on introducing tubular nets to women seaweed farmers in Zanzibar. Gender Technol. Dev. 24 (1), 89–109. doi: 10.1080/09718524.2019.1695307
Butler J. R. A., Wise R. M., Skewes T. D., Bohensky E. L., Peterson N., Suadnya W., et al. (2015). Integrating top-down and bottom-up adaptation planning to build adaptive capacity: a structured learning approach. Coast. Manage. 43, 346–364. doi: 10.1080/08920753.2015.1046802
Chatting M., Al-Maslamani I., Walton M., Skov M. W., Kennedy H., Husrevoglu Y. S., et al. (2022). Future mangrove carbon storage under climate change and deforestation. Front. Mar. Sci. 9. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2022.781876
Chen J.-L., Hsu K., Chuang C.-T. (2020). How do fishery resources enhance the development of coastal fishing communities? lessons learned from a community-based sea farming project in Taiwan. Ocean Coast. Manage. 184, 9. doi: 10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2019.105015
Childs J., Hicks C. C. (2019). Securing the blue: Political ecologies of the blue economy in Africa. J. Political Ecol. 26 (1), 323–340. doi: 10.2458/v26i1.23162
Christianen M. J. A., Van Belzen J., Herman P. M. J., Van Katwijk M. M., Lamers L. P. M., Van Leent P. J. M., et al. (2013). Low-canopy seagrass beds still provide important coastal protection services. PloS One 8, e62413. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0062413
Chung I. K., Beardall J., Mehta S., Sahoo D., Stojkovic S. (2011). Using marine macroalgae for carbon sequestration: a critical appraisal. J. Appl. Phycol. 23, 877–886. doi: 10.1007/s10811-010-9604-9
Chung I. K., Oak J. H., Lee J. A., Shin J. A., Kim J. G., Park K.-S. (2013). Installing kelp forests/seaweed beds for mitigation and adaptation against global warming: Korean project overview. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 70 (5), 1038–1044. doi: 10.1093/icesjms/fss206
Clarke B., Otto F., Stuart-SmitH R., Harrington L. (2022). Extreme weather impacts of climate change: an attribution perspective. Environ. Res.: Climate 1, 012001. doi: 10.1088/2752-5295/ac6e7d
Cohen R., Kaino J., Okello J., Bosire J. O., Kairo J. G., Huxham M., et al. (2013). Propagating uncertainty to estimates of above-ground biomass for Kenyan mangroves: A scaling procedure from tree to landscape level. For. Ecol. Manage. 310, 968–982. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2013.09.047
Commonwealth Blue Charter (2021). Shared Values, Shared Ocean (London, UK: Commonwealth Secretariat). Available at: https://thecommonwealth.org.
Cooray P. L. I. G. M., Kodikara K. A. S., Kumara M. P., Jayasinghe U. I., Madarasinghe S. K., Dahdouh-Guebas F., et al. (2021). Climate and intertidal zonation drive variability in the carbon stocks of Sri Lankan mangrove forests. Geoderma 389, 114929. doi: 10.1016/j.geoderma.2021.114929
Coppejans E., Leliaert F., De Clerck. O. (2000). Annotated list of new records of marine macroalgae for Kenya and Tanzania, since Isaac's and Jaasund's publications. Biologisch Jaarboek Dodonaea 67, 31–93.
Dahdouh-Guebas F., Van Pottelbergh I., Kairo J., Cannicci S., Koedam N. (2004). Human-impacted mangroves in Gazi (Kenya): predicting future vegetation based on retrospective remote sensing, social surveys, and tree distribution. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 272, 77–92. doi: 10.3354/meps272077
Das S. (2020). “Evaluation of mangrove ecosystem services: methodological and data challenges,” in Energy, Environment and Globalization. Eds. Gupta A., Dalei N. N. (Singapore: Springer), 157–174. doi: 10.1007/978-981-13-9310-5_9
Demarco M., Oliveira de Moraes J., Matos A. P., Derner R. B., Neves F., Tribuzi G. (2022). Digestibility, bioaccessibility and bioactivity of compounds from algae. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 121, 114–128. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2022.02.004
Duarte C. M., Losada I. J., Hendriks I. E., Mazarrasa I., Marba N. (2013). The role of coastal plant communities for climate change mitigation and adaptation. Nat. Clim Chang 3 (11), 961–968. doi: 10.1038/nclimate1970
Duarte C. M., Middelburg J. J., Caraco N. (2005). Major role of marine vegetation on the oceanic carbon cycle. Biogeosciences 2, 1–8. doi: 10.5194/bg-2-1-2005,
El Asmar J.-P., Ebohon J. O., Taki A. (2012). Bottom-up approach to sustainable urban development in Lebanon: the case of Zouk Mosbeh. Sustain. Cities Soc 2, 37–44. doi: 10.1016/j.scs.2011.10.002
European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA). (2023). Potential of wind-assisted propulsion for shipping. (Lisbon: EMSA).
Ezcurra P., Ezcurra E., Garcillán P. P., Costa M. T., Aburto-Oropeza O. (2016). Coastal landforms and accumulation of mangrove peat increase carbon sequestration and storage. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 113, 4404–4409. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1519774113
Ferreira A. B. G., Carneiro M. A. A., Fernandes F. O., Soriano E. M. (2021). Evaluation of ecosystem services provided by farmed and wild seaweeds. Rev. Ibero Americana Cienc. Ambientais 12 (6), 499–511. doi: 10.6008/CBPC2179-6858.2021.006.0041
Fleurence J. (2004). “Seaweed proteins,” in Proteins in Food Processing (Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing Limited), 197–213.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2016). Valuing Coastal Ecosystems and Economic Assets: The importance of mangroves for food security and livelihoods among communities in Kilifi County and Tana Delta (Kenya: FAO, Rome, Italy). Available at: http://www.fao.org/3/q-i5689e.pdf.
Garcia-Poza S., Leandro A., Cotas C., Cotas J., Marques J. C., Pereira L., et al. (2020). The evolution road of seaweed aquaculture: cultivation technologies and the industry. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 17, 6528. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17186528
Giri C., Ochieng E., Tieszen L. L., Zhu Z., Singh A., Loveland T., et al. (2011). Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 20, 154–159. doi: 10.1111/j.1466-8238.2010.00584.x
Gitau P. N., Duvail S., Verschuren D. (2023). Evaluating the combined impacts of hydrological change, coastal dynamics and human activity on mangrove cover and health in the Tana River delta, Kenya. Regional Stud. Mar. Sci. 61, 102898. doi: 10.1016/j.rsma.2023.102898
GoK (2017b). Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) Sector Analysis Report: The Evidence Base for Updating Kenya’s National Climate Change Action Plan. (Nairobi: Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources).
GoK (2020). Kenya’s Update Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). (Nairobi: Ministry of Environment and Forestry).
Government of Kenya (GoK) (2016). Green Economy Strategy and Implementation Plan-Kenya 2016-2030. (Nairobi, Kenya: Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources), 46.
Government of Kenya (GoK) (2017a). “National mangrove ecosystem management plan,” in National Mangrove Management Plan 2017-2027. (Nairobi, Kenya).
Government of Kenya (GoK) (2021). National REDD+ Strategy (Nairobi, Kenya: Ministry of Environment and Forestry), 90.
Government of Kenya (GoK) (2023). Kenya National Blue Economy Strategy 2023-2027. (Nairobi, Kenya: Ministry of Mining, Blue Economy and Maritime Affairs).
Gress S. K., Huxham M., Kairo J. G., Mugi L. M., Briers R. A. (2017). Evaluating, predicting and mapping belowground carbon stores in Kenyan mangroves. Global Change Biol. 23, 224–234. doi: 10.1111/gcb.13438
Guillerme J., Couteau C., Coiffard L. (2017). Applications for marine resources in cosmetics. Cosmetics 4, 35. doi: 10.3390/cosmetics4030035
Hamza A. J., Esteves L. S., Cvitanovi´c M. (2022). Changes in mangrove cover and exposure to coastal hazards in Kenya. Land 11, 1714. doi: 10.3390/land11101714
Hasselstrom L., Visch W., Grondahl F., Nylund G. M., Pavia H. (2018). The impact of seaweed cultivation on ecosystem services - a case study from the west coast of Sweden. Mar. pollut. Bull. 133, 53–64. doi: 10.1016/jmarpolbul.2018.05.005
He P., Xu S., Zhang H., Wen S., Dai Y., Lin S., et al. (2008). Bioremediation efficiency in the removal of dissolved inorganic nutrients by the red seaweed, Porphyra yezoensis, cultivated in the open sea. Water Res. 42, 1281–1289. doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2007.09.023
Huff A., Tonui C. (2017). Making ‘Mangroves Together’: Carbon, Conservation and Co-agement in Gazi Bay, Kenya STEPS Working Paper Vol. 95 (Brighton: STEPS Centre).
Hurtado A. Q., Msuya F. E. (2017). The role of women in seaweed aquaculture in the Western Indian Ocean and South-East Asia. Eur. J. Phycol. 52, 482–494. doi: 10.1080/09670262.2017.1357084
Huxham M., Emerton L., Kairo J., Munyi F., Abdirizak H., Muriuki T., et al. (2015). Applying Climate Compatible Development and economic valuation to coastal management: A case study of Kenya’s mangrove forests. J. Environ. Manage. 157, 168–181. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.04.018
Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD). (2020). Regional Blue Economy Strategy and Implementation Plan 2021-2025. (Djibouti: Planning, Coordination and Partnership Division, IGAD Secretariat). Available at: www.igad.int.
International Maritime Organization (IMO) (2018). Initial IMO Strategy on Reduction of GHG Emissions from Ships and Existing IMO Activity Related to Reducing GHG Emissions in the Shipping Sector. (London: IMO). Available at: info@imo.org.
IPCC. (2022). “Climate change 2022: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability,” in Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Eds. Pörtner H.-O., Roberts D. C., Tignor M., Poloczanska E. S., Mintenbeck K., Alegría A., Craig M., Langsdorf S., Löschke S., Möller V., Okem A., Rama B. (Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press), 3056. doi: 10.1017/9781009325844
IRENA. (2020). Global Renewables Outlook: Energy transformation 2050 (Edition: 2020) (Abu Dhabi: International Renewable Energy Agency). Available at: www.irena.org/publicationsISBN 978-92-9260-238-3.
Jennerjahn T. C. (2020). Relevance and magnitude of “Blue Carbon” storage in mangrove sediments: Carbon accumulation rates vs. stocks, sources vs. sinks. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 247, 107027. doi: 10.1016/J.ECSS.2020.107027
Kairo J. G., Bosire J., Langat J., Kirui B., Koedam N. (2009). Allometry and biomass distribution in replanted mangrove plantations at Gazi Bay, Kenya. Aquat. Conserv: Mar. Freshw. Ecosystem 19, S63–S69. doi: 10.1002/aqc.1046
Kairo J. G., Hamza A. J., Wanjiru C. (2019). “Mikoko pamoja: A demonstrably effective community-based blue carbon project in Kenya,” in In A blue carbon Primer: The state of Coastal Wetland Carbon Science, Practice and Policy. Eds. Windham-Myers L., Crooks S., Troxler T. (London, UK: CRC Press Taylor & Francis) 2019, 341–351.
Kairo J., Mbatha A., Murithi M. M., Mungai F. (2021). Total ecosystem carbon stocks of mangroves in lamu, Kenya; and their potential contributions to the climate change agenda in the country. Front. For. Glob. Change 4. doi: 10.3389/ffgc.2021.709227
Kenya Ports Authority Magazine. (2023). Bandari October 2023. (Mombasa, Kenya). Available at: www.kpa.co.ke.
Kauffman J. B., Bhomia R. K. (2017). Ecosystem carbon stocks of mangroves across broad environmental gradients in West-Central Africa: global and regional comparisons. PloS One 12, e0187749. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0187749
Kim J. K., Yarish C., Hwang E. K., Park M., Kim Y. (2017). Seaweed aquaculture: cultivation technologies, challenges and its ecosystem services. Algae 32, 1–13. doi: 10.4490/algae.2017.32.3.3
Kimathi A. G., Wakibia J. G., Gichua M. K. (2018). Growth rates of Eucheuma denticulatum and Kappaphycus alvarezii (Rhodophyta; Gigartinales) cultured using modified of-bottom and floating raft techniques on the Kenyan coast. Western Indian Ocean J. Mar. Sci. 17, 11. doi: 10.4314/wiojms.v17i2.2
Kirui B., Kairo J. G., Bosire J., Viergever K. M., Rudra S., Huxham M., et al. (2013). Mapping of mangrove forest land cover change along the Kenya coastline using Landsat imagery. Ocean Coast. Manage. 83, 19–24. doi: 10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2011.12.004
Kraemer G. P., Kim J. K., Yarish C. (2014). Seaweed aquaculture: bio extraction of nutrients to reduce eutrophication. Assoc. Massachusetts Wetland Scientists Newslett. 89, 16–17.
Krause-Jensen D., Duarte C. M. (2016). Substantial role of macroalgae in marine carbon sequestration. Nat. Geosci. 9 (10), 737–742. doi: 10.1038/ngeo2790
Krause-Jensen D., Duarte C. M., Hendriks I. E., Meire L., Blicher M. E., Marbà N., et al. (2015). Macroalgae contribute to nested mosaics of pH variability in a sub-Arctic fjord. Biogeosciences 12, 4895–4911. doi: 10.5194/bg-12-4895-2015
Laffoley D., Grimsditch G. (Eds.) (2009). The Management of Natural Coastal Carbon Sinks (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN).
Largo D. B., Msuya F. E., Menezes A. (2020). Understanding diseases and control in seaweed farming in Zanzibar. (Rome, Italy: FAO Fisheries Aquaculture Tech. Paper No. 662). doi: 10.4060/ca9004en
Lee S. Y., Primavera J. H., Dahdouh-guebas F., Mckee K., Bosire J. O., Cannicci S., et al. (2014). Ecological role and services of tropical mangrove ecosystems: A reassessment. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr 23, 726–743. doi: 10.1111/geb.12155
Locatelli T., Binet T., Kairo J. G., King L., Madden S., Patenaude G., et al. (2014). Turning the tide: how blue carbon and payments for ecosystem services (PES) might help save mangrove forests. Ambio 43, 981–995. doi: 10.1007/s13280-014-0530-y
Macartain P., Gill C. I. R., Brooks M., Campbell R., Rowland I. R. (2007). Special article nutritional value of edible seaweeds. Nutr. Rev. 65, 535–543. doi: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2007.tb00278.x
Mackenzie B., Celliers L., Assad L. P., Heymans J. J., Rome N., Thomas J., et al. (2019). The role of stakeholders in creating societal value from coastal and ocean observations. Front. Mar. Sci. 6. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2019.00137
Macreadie P. I., Anton A., Raven J. A., Beaumont N., Connolly R. M., Friess D. A., et al. (2019). The future of Blue Carbon science. Nat. Commun. 10, 3998. doi: 10.1038/s41467-019-11693-w
Macreadie P., Costa M., Atwood T., Friess D., Kelleway J., Kennedy H., et al. (2021). Blue carbon as a natural climate solution. Nat. Rev. Earth Environ. 2, 826–839. doi: 10.1038/s43017-021-00224-1
Marti I., Puertas R. (2020). Analysis of the efficiency of African countries through their ecological footprint and biocapacity. Sci. Total Environ. 722, 137504. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137504
Mayer A. M. S., Rodríguez A. D., Taglialatela-Scafati O., Fusetani N. (2013). Marine Pharmacology in 2009–2011: Marine compounds with antibacterial, antidiabetic, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antiprotozoal, antituberculosis, and antiviral activities; affecting the immune and nervous systems, and other miscellaneous mechanisms. Mar. Drugs 11, 2510–2573. doi: 10.3390/md11072510
McHugh D. J. (2003). “Seaweeds uses as human foods,” in A Guide to the Seaweed Industry. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 441 (Rome: FAO).
Mcleod E., Chmura G. L., Bouillon S., Salm R., Björk M., Duarte C. M., et al. (2011). A blueprint for blue carbon: toward an improved understanding of the role of vegetated coastal habitats in sequestering CO2. Front. Ecol. Environ. 9, 552–560. doi: 10.1890/110004
Menéndez P., Losada I. J., Torres-Ortega S., Narayan S., Beck M. W. (2020). The global flood protection benefits of mangroves. Sci. Rep. 10, 4404. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-61136-6
Mirera D. O., Kimathi A., Ngarari M. M., Magondu E. W., Wainaina M., Ototo A. (2020). Societal and environmental impacts of seaweed farming in relation to rural development: the case of Kibuyuni village, south coast. Kenya Ocean Coast. Manag 194, 105253. doi: 10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2020.105253
Mišurcová L., Ambrožová J., Samek D. (2011). Seaweed lipids as nutraceuticals. Adv. Food Nutr. Res. 64, 339–355. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-387669-0.00027-2
Mongin M., Baird M. E., Hadley S., Lenton A. (2016). Optimizing reef-scale CO2 removal by seaweed to buffer ocean acidification. Environ. Res. Letters. 11, 034023. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/11/3/034023
Moorjani S. A. (1977). The ecology of marine algae of the Kenya coast. PhD thesis Univ. Nairobi pp, 285.
Morara G. N., Hasan F., Osore M. K. (2015).Sustaining local livelihoods through coastal fisheries in Kenya. Sustainability Indicators in Practice, 99.
Msuya F. E. (2013). “Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming,” in Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming, Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 580. Eds. Valderrama D., Cai J., Hishamunda N., Ridler N. (Rome: FAO), 115–146.
Msuya F. E., Bolton J., Pascal F., Narrain K., Nyonje B., Cottier-Cook E. J. (2022). Seaweed farming in Africa: current status and potential. J. Appl. Phycology 34, 985–1005. doi: 10.1007/s10811-021-02676-w
Msuya F. E., Porter M. (2014). Impact of environmental changes on farmed seaweed and farmers: the case of Songo Island, Tanzania. J. Appl. Phycol 26, 2135–2141. doi: 10.1007/s10811-014-0243-4
Murungi E. M. (2017). Social-Ecological Resilience of Gazi Bay and Vanga Mangrove Systems (As: Norwegian University of Life Sciences).
Musyoka N. M. (2015). Carbon Stocks and Sequestration Potentials in Managed Mangrove Plantations of Gazi Bay Vol. 2015 (Nairobi, Kenya: Kenya. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Nairobi).
Nellemann C., Corcoran E., Duarte C. M., Valdes L., De Young C., Fonseca L. E., et al. (2009). Blue carbon: the role of healthy oceans in binding carbon Vol. 78 (35–44: United Nations Environment Program, GRID-Ardenal), ISBN: ISBN 978-82-7701-060-1978-82-7701-060-1.
Nyamora J., Mangondu E., Mwihaki G., Muya J., Nyakeya K. (2018). Long line seaweed farming as an alternative to other commonly used methods. Kenya Aquatica J. 4 (01), 23–28.
Nyundo M. K. (2017). Factors influencing women entrepreneurship: The case of Kibuyuni and Mkwiro seaweed farmers in the coastal region of Kenya Vol. 2017. [Doctoral dissertation]. (Nairobi, Kenya: University of Nairobi).
Odhiambo J. O., Wakibia J., Sakwa M. M. (2020). Effects of monitoring and evaluation planning on implementation of poverty alleviation mariculture projects in the coast of Kenya. Mar. Policy 119, 104050. doi: 10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104050
ODINAFRICA. (2020). Seaweed Farming Helps Kwale Women Exploit Blue Economy. Available at: http://www.odinafrica.org/about-us/news/185-seaweed-farming-helps-kwale-women-exploit-blue-economy.html.
OECD. (2016). The Ocean Economy in 2030 Vol. 2016 (Paris: OECD Publishing). doi: 10.1787/9789264251724-en
Okafor-Yarwood I., Kadagi N. I., Miranda N. A. F., Uku J., Elegbede I. O., Adewumi I. J. (2020). The blue economy–cultural livelihood–ecosystem conservation triangle: the African experience. Front. Mar. Sci. 7. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2020.00586
Ollando J. A., Mwakumanya M. A., Mindra B. (2019). The viability of red alga ( Gracilaria salicornia ) seaweed farming for commercial extraction of agar at Kibuyuni in Kwale county South Coast Kenya. Int. J. Fish Aquat Stud. 7, 175–180.
Omondi M. A. (2017). Analysis of local governance structures, attitudes and perceptions supporting mangrove management in Vanga, south coast, Kenya. [Doctoral dissertation], (Kenya: Egerton University).
Overbeeke F., Shepherd I., Canac S., Grosskopf A. (2022). Blue entrepreneurship scoping study for Kenya. Unlocking business solutions that benefit people, the ocean and climate. (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN).
Oyieke H. A. (1998). “The seaweed resources of Kenya,” in Seaweed resources of the World. Eds. Critchley A. T., Ohno M. (Yokosuka: JICA), 385–388.
Pereira H., Barreira L., Figueiredo F., Custódio L., Vizetto-Duarte C., Polo C., et al. (2011). Polyunsaturated fatty acids of marine macroalgae: Potential for nutritional and pharmaceutical applications. Mar. Drugs 10, 1920–1935. doi: 10.3390/md10091920
Pimentel F., Alves R., Rodrigues F., Oliveira M. B. P. P. (2017). Macroalgae-derived ingredients for cosmetic industry: an update. Cosmetics 5, 2. doi: 10.3390/cosmetics5010002
Plan Vivo Project Design Document (PDD) (2020). Mikoko Pamoja Mangrove Conservation for Community Benefit, Vol. 59. (Edinburg, Scotland: Plan Vivo Foundation).
Quirost T. E. A. L., Sudo K., Ramilo R. V., Garay H. G., Soniega M. P. G., Baloloy A., et al. (2021). Blue carbon ecosystem services through a vulnerability lens: opportunities to reduce social vulnerability in fishing communities. Front. Mar. Sci. 8. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2021.671753
Rasowo J. O., Orina P. O., Nyonje B., Awuor S., Olendi R. (2020). Harnessing Kenya’s blue economy: prospects and challenges. J. Indian Ocean Region 16 (3), 292–316. doi: 10.1080/19480881.2020.1825199
Rideout A. J. R., Joshi N. P., Viergever K. M., Huxham M., Briers R. A. (2013). Making predictions of mangrove deforestation: a comparison of two methods in Kenya. Glob. Change 19, 3493–3501. doi: 10.1111/gcb.12176
Rimmer M. A., Larson S., Lapong I., Purnomo A. H., Pong-Masak P. R., Swanepoel L., et al. (2021). Seaweed aquaculture in Indonesia contributes to social and economic aspects of livelihoods and community wellbeing. Sustainability 13, 10946. doi: 10.j3390/su131910946
Ruan B. A. (2018). Review of the components of seaweeds as potential candidates in cancer therapy. Anticancer. Agents Med. Chem. 18, 354–366. doi: 10.2174/1871520617666171106130325
Sánchez-MaChado D. I., López-Cervantes J., López-Hernández J., Paseiro-Losada P. (2004). Fatty acids, total lipid, protein and ash contents of processed edible seaweeds. Food Chem. 85, 439–444. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2003.08.001
Simane B., Zaitchik B. F. (2014). The sustainability of community-based adaptation projects in the Blue Nile highlands of Ethiopia. Sustainability 6, 4308–4323. doi: 10.3390/su6074308
Smale D. A., Burrows M. T., Moore P., O'Connor N., Hawkins S. J. (2013). Threats and knowledge gaps for ecosystem services provided by kelp forests: a northeast Atlantic perspective. Ecol. Evol. 3, 4016–4038. doi: 10.1002/ece3.774
Smit A. J. (2004). Medicinal and pharmaceutical uses of seaweed natural products: A review. J. Appl. Phycol. 16, 245–262. doi: 10.1023/B:JAPH.0000047783.36600.ef
Suello R. H., Hernandez S. L., Bouillon S., Belliard J.-P., Dominguez-Granda L., Van de Broek M., et al. (2022). Mangrove sediment organic carbon storage and sources in relation to forest age and position along a deltaic salinity gradient. Biogeosciences 19, 1571–1585. doi: 10.5194/bg-19-1571-2022
Taillardat P., Friess D. A., Lupascu M. (2018). Mangrove blue carbon strategies for climate change mitigation are most effective at the national scale. Biol. Lett. 14, 20180251. doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2018.0251
Trisos C. H., Adelekan I. O., Totin E., Ayanlade A., Efitre J., Gemeda A., et al. (2022). “Africa,” in Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Eds. Pörtner H.-O., Roberts D. C., Tignor M., Poloczanska E. S., Mintenbeck K., Alegría A., Craig M., Langsdorf S., Löschke S., Möller V., Okem A., Rama B. (Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press), 1285–1455. doi: 10.1017/9781009325844.011
UN Environment (UNEP). (2018). The value of coastal ecosystems. Available at: http://web.unep.org/coastal-eba/valuecoastal-ecosystems.
UN Habitat. (2018). UN-habitat background paper on Blue Economy and cities (Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Human Settlement Program (UN-Habitat)). Available at: www.unhabitat.org.
United Nations Development Program (UNDP). (2018). “Policy Brief: Leveraging the Blue economy for Inclusive and sustainable growth,” in An input to sustainable Blue economy conference hosted jointly by Kenya and Canada in Kenya, vol. 7. (Nairobi: UNDP Kenya Country Office).
UN-REDD+. (2018). 10th Consolidated Annual Progress Report of the UN-REDD Programme Fund. (Geneva, Switzerland: UN-REDD Program Secretariat). Available at: www.unredd.org.
Vanga Blue Forest Project Design Document (PDD). (2019). Plan Vivo Standards 2019. (Edinburg, Scotland: Plan Vivo Foundation)., 69.
Wakibia J. G., Bolton J. J., Keats D. W., Raitt L. M. (2006). Factors influencing the growth rates of three commercial eucheumoids at coastal sites in southern Kenya. J. Appl. Phycol. 18 (3-5), 565–573. doi: 10.1007/s10811-006-9058-2
Wakibia J. G., Ochiewo J., Bolton J. J. (2011). Economic analysis of eucheumoid algae farming in Kenya. West Indian Ocean J. Mar. Sci. 10, 13–24.
Wang J., Dong K. (2019). What drives environmental degradation? Evidence from 14 Sub-Saharan African countries. Sci. Total Environ. 656, 165–173. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.354
Wang F., Sanders C. J., Santos I. R., Tang J., Schuerch M., Kirwan M. L., et al. (2020). Global blue carbon accumulation in tidal wetlands increases with climate change. Natl. Sci. Rev. 8, nwaa 296. doi: 10.1093/nsr/nwaa296
Wells M. M. L., Potin P., Craigie J. S., Raven J. A., Merchant S. S., Helliwell K. E., et al. (2016). Algae as nutritional and functional food sources: revisiting our understanding. J. Appl. Phycology 29, 949–982. doi: 10.1007/s10811-016-0974-5
World Bank and United Nations. (2017). Blue Economy: Increasing Long-term benefits of the sustainable use of marine resources for small island developing states and coastal least developed countries. Available at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/523151496389684076/pdf/115545-1-6-2017-14-48-41-BlueEconomyJun.pdf.
World Bank. (2023). The Container Port Performance Reference Index (CPPI) 2022: A comparable assessment of performance based on vessel time in port (Fine). (Washington, DC: World Bank).
Wu H., Kim J. K., Huo Y., Zhang J., He P. (2017). Nutrient removal ability of seaweeds on Pyropia yezoensis aquaculture rafts in China’s radial sandbanks. Aquat. Bot. 137, 72–79. doi: 10.1016/j.aquabot.2016.11.011
Xue L., Haseeb M., Mahmood H., Alkhateeb T. T. Y., Murshed M. (2021). Renewable energy use and ecological footprints mitigation: evidence from selected South Asian economies. Sustainability 13, 1–20. doi: 10.3390/su13041613
Yameogo C. E. W., Omojolaibi J. A., Dauda R. O. S. (2021). Economic globalization, institutions and environmental quality in Sub-Saharan Africa. Res. Glob. 3, 100035. doi: 10.1016/j.resglo.2020.100035
Yang L., Bashiru Danwana S., Issahaku F.F-I,Y. (2022). Achieving environmental sustainability in Africa: The role of renewable energy consumption, natural resources and government effectiveness- Evidence from symmetric and asymmetric ARDL Models. Int.J. Environ. Res. Public Health 19, 8038. doi: 10.3390/ijerph19138038
Yarish C., Wamukoya G. (1990). Seaweeds of potential economic importance in Kenya: field survey and future prospects. Hydrobiologia 204–205, 339–346F. doi: 10.1007/978-94-009-2049-1_48
Yong T. L. Y., Thien V. Y., Rupert R., Rodriguwes K. F. (2022). Seaweed: A potential climate change solution. Renewable Sustain. Energy Rev. 159 (18), 112222. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2022.112222
Yuan Y., Athukorala Y. (2011). “Red algal mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) as potential cosmeceuticals,” in Marine Cosmeceuticals (Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press), 143–168.
Zeng Y., Friess D. A., Sarira T. V., Siman K., Koh L. P. (2021). Global potential and limits of mangrove blue carbon for climate change mitigation. Curr. Biol. 31, 1737.e–1743.e. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.01.070
Keywords: sustainability, mangroves, seaweeds, decarbonization, carbon credit
Citation: Rasowo JO, Nyonje B, Olendi R, Orina P and Odongo S (2024) Towards environmental sustainability: further evidences from decarbonization projects in Kenya’s Blue Economy. Front. Mar. Sci. 11:1239862. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2024.1239862
Received: 14 June 2023; Accepted: 09 January 2024;
Published: 06 February 2024.
Edited by:
Heliana Teixeira, University of Aveiro, PortugalReviewed by:
Isa Olalekan Elegbede, Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus-Senftenberg, GermanyAngel Borja, Marine Research Division, Spain
Copyright © 2024 Rasowo, Nyonje, Olendi, Orina and Odongo. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Joseph Ouma Rasowo, anJhc293b0B0dW0uYWMua2U=