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In recent years photogrammetry has become an essential tool in the study of tetrapod footprints. Morphological analyses of footprints are interpretative; thus, researchers should use as much information as possible in order to eventually provide an objective conclusion. In this regard, photogrammetry is an extremely helpful tool to avoid potential biases and to better present ichnological data. We review the use of this technique in several Permian and Triassic tetrapod ichnological studies, with considerations on (1) ichnotaxonomy, (2) track-trackmaker correlation, (3) locomotion and/or behavior, (4) substrate induced effects, and (5) preservation of the fossil record and heritage. Furthermore, based on the available three-dimensional (3D) data on Permian and Triassic material, we present a first qualitative interpretation of relative depth patterns and the related functional prevalence (most deeply impressed area) within footprints. We identified three main groups: (1) anamniote, captorhinomorph/parareptile tracks (medial-median functional prevalence), (2) diapsid tracks (median functional prevalence), and (3) synapsid tracks (median-lateral functional prevalence). The use of 3D photogrammetric models brings new light to the tetrapod footprint record, helping to better understand tetrapod communities throughout the late Paleozoic (and the end-Guadalupian and end-Permian extinctions) and the tetrapod recovery during the early Mesozoic.

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Original Research
21 April 2020
Decoupling Functional and Morphological Convergence, the Study Case of Fossorial Mammalia
Gabriele Sansalone
7 more and 
Stephen Wroe
Correlation between costal surface of the scapula and longitudinal axes of the glenoid fossa and functional context employed in the current study. (A) Naraboryctes philcreaseri (B) Talpa romana (C) Naraboryctes philcreaseri functional model (D) Tachyglossus aculeatus functional model. Abbreviation: H, costal surface; g, longitudinal axes of the glenoid fossa; ax, retraction axis; ss, scapula; ro: rotational axis; Tr, m. triceps; Me, medial epicondyle; Le, lateral epicondyle; W/E Flexors, wrist and elbow flexors muscles; dm, dorsal manus; mov, movement direction; ld, m. latissimus dorsi; Tm, m. teres major.

Morphological similarity between biological structures in phylogenetically distant species is usually regarded as evidence of convergent evolution. Yet, phenotypic similarity is not always a sign of natural selection acting on a particular trait, therefore adaptation to similar conditions may fail to generate convergent lineages. Herein we tested whether convergent evolution occurred in the humerus of fossorial mammals, one of the most derived biological structures among mammals. Clades adapting to digging kinematics possess unusual, by mammalian standards, humeral shapes. The application of a new, computationally fast morphological test revealed a single significant instance of convergence pertaining to the Japanese fossorial moles (Mogera) and the North-American fossorial moles (Scalopini). Yet, the pattern only manifests when trade-off performance data (derived from finite element analysis) are added to shape data. This result indicates that fossorial mammals have found multiple solutions to the same adaptive challenge, independently moving around multiple adaptive peaks. This study suggests the importance of accounting for functional trade-off measures when studying morpho-functional convergence. We revealed that fossorial mammals, a classic example of convergent evolution, evolved multiple strategies to exploit the subterranean ecotope, characterized by different functional trade-offs rather than converging toward a single adaptive optimum.

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Digital reconstructions of the brain cavity of Catonyx tarijensis MNHN-Bol V 13364 from the Pleistocene of Oruro (Bolivian Altiplano) in dorsal (A), ventral (B), lateral (C), and anterior (D) views. arf, anterior rhinal fissure; eg, ectosylvian gyrus; es, entolateral sulcus; fov, foramen ovale groove; h, hypophysis; hf, hypoglossal foramen groove; iam, internal acoustic meatus; jf, jugular foramen groove; lch, left cerebellar hemisphere; lf, longitudinal fissure; lg, lateral gyrus; ls, lateral sulcus; ob, olfactory bulb; og, occipital gyrus; olg, olfactory gyrus; op, olfactory peduncle; opt, optic nerve; opt/fsph, common groove for the optic foramen and sphenorbital fissure; org, orbital gyrus; p, paraflocculus; pl, pyriform lobe; prf, posterior rhinal fissure; ps, presylvian sulcus; pss, pseudosylvian sulcus; rch, right cerebellar hemisphere; sg, suprasylvian gyrus; ss, suprasylvian sulcus; tf, transverse fissure; tl, temporal lobe; ve, vermis. Colors indicate: gray, cerebrum; blue, olfactory bulbs; turquoise, cerebellum; orange, neurovascular connections. Roman numeral designations indicate cranial nerves. Scale bar equals 5 cm.
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Therocephalia is one of the major therapsid clades and ranges from the middle Permian to Middle Triassic. The earliest therocephalians were large-bodied predators whose fossils are common in middle Permian rocks of South Africa, but have received little study. Here we present a redescription of the skull of the early therocephalian Lycosuchus based on a specimen from the middle Permian Tapinocephalus Assemblage Zone of the South African Karoo Basin. By using a computed tomographic (CT) reconstruction of this specimen, we describe for the first time several endocranial characters of this taxon including a highly ramified maxillary canal and the inner ear, which is characterized by a lengthened lateral semicircular canal, a feature previously only known from the anomodont Kawingasaurus among non-mammalian therapsids, and the presence of a cochlear recess, so far only known within Therocephalia from the highly specialized Triassic taxon Microgomphodon. We also provide new insights into patterns of tooth replacement in lycosuchids, which have proven controversial for this taxon. Craniodental characters generally support the placement of Lycosuchus as the most basal taxon in therocephalian phylogeny. The morphology of the maxillary canal and inner ear reveal a mosaic of features indicating a complex history of character acquisition and loss in Therocephalia, comparable to that of cynodonts.

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Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution

Paleometry and its applications: A multidisciplinary approach to uncover lost and new worlds
Edited by Mírian Pacheco, Dina M Bower, Pierre Gueriau, Gabriel de Souza Ferreira, Paulo Tarso Freire
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31 January 2024
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