Md Hasibul Hasan
Mohammad Jobayer Hossain
Sultana Afrin Nipa- 1School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States
- 2School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States
- 3School of Social Transformation, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States
Water disputes are a prevalent global concern because of the scarcity of freshwater supplies and intricate interplay between hydrology, environment, and society. Water disputes can arise due to a variety of factors, including interests of stakeholders, allocation of resources, process of decision-making, power dynamics, and governance system. If left unresolved, these confrontations have the potential to escalate into acts of violence. This review focuses on the evolution and dynamics of local-level water conflicts that received limited attention but has significant impact on Community-Based Natural Resource Management, with a deep-dive focus on coastal Bangladesh. We examined the history of water management and causes and impacts of water conflicts in coastal polders from macro to micro scale along with identifying the strategies and approaches to eliminate water conflicts at local-level. The findings emphasize the need for stakeholder engagement, collaborative approaches, and improved water management strategies to mitigate conflicts and promote sustainable water resource management. The findings emphasize on the redistribution and decentralization of power and interest-based resource management system, collaborative approach and stakeholder engagement, a mix method approach presence of Irrigation Management Transfer, participatory irrigation management, transformative analysis, and improved water management strategies to mitigate conflicts and promote sustainable water resource management.
1 Introduction
Globally, water holds an immense significance and is recognized as an essential natural asset (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2008). However, the restricted supply of fresh water complicates the utilization and management of this resource. The management of this shared and collective natural resource is consistently challenging due to the interconnectedness of hydrology, ecology, and society within the context of limited water availability. This limitation poses a universal concern that often gives rise to conflicting situations among individuals, groups, institutions, and even nations, regarding the utilization, management, and accessibility of water (Connor, 2015).
Water conflicts worldwide arise as a result of disputes over land, rivers, forests, or rights to access natural resources. Conflicts initially arise as implicit and dormant conflicts, wherein stakeholders and various groups may be unaware or fail to take action to address their decision-making processes or assert their rights (Antonio et al., 2019). However, if left unresolved, these conflicts can escalate into a state of manifest conflicts, and in some cases, even lead to violent events. Particularly concerning water resources, these issues become more critical and can occasionally result in conflicts (Heady, 1998). To address this crisis, global water management is experiencing unprecedented transformations (Tamas, 2003, p. 15). One such transition involves a shift away from centralized command and control methods towards decentralization through institutional reforms and the introduction of community involvement. This is achieved through the adoption of Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) approaches, which empower communities as distinct social units to effectively manage natural resources (Shackleton and Campbel, 2001). While CBNRM initiatives in Africa have shown positive advancements, it is worth noting that they are not universally regarded as successful, as the process is intricate and the path to achieving successful CBNRM is not straightforward (Shackleton and Campbel, 2001). Similarly, the experience of community-based water management in Asia has been marked by numerous failures, with only a few success stories, as highlighted by Mukherji et al. (2009). In response to this, the government of Bangladesh has undertaken several initiatives, including the implementation of participatory-based water management guidelines. Supported by this participatory approach, the government has established various institutions such as the Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR), the National Water Resources Council (NWRC), the Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB), the Water Resources Planning Organization (WARPO), and the Local Government Engineering Department (LGED), among others, to manage its water resources (Dewan et al., 2014; Dewan, 2012). They have also implemented nationwide macro-level water resources planning through a combination of structural (engineering) and non-structural approaches. This includes activities such as embankment construction, operation and maintenance (O&M) of water control structures like embankments, polders, and sluices, as well as dredging and re-excavation of rivers/canals, land reclamation, and river training, among others (Blue Gold, 2021).
Although water conflicts and management issues occur globally, the focus of this review is specifically on the coastal context of Bangladesh. This coastal region serves as a distinctive example, as it grapples with the challenges of salinity issues and freshwater scarcity (Abdullah et al., 2017). Furthermore, the higher water-related authorities in Bangladesh have weak or non-existent connections with other government ministries (such as agriculture, fishery, environment, and forestry) and with local water consumers, particularly in terms of project planning, implementation, infrastructure development, and policymaking (Chan et al., 2016). As a consequence, water resource management in the coastal areas of Bangladesh suffers from mismanagement, persistent crises, and increased vulnerability to natural disasters and upstream diversion. These factors hinder the ability to meet the water demands of a rapidly growing population, as well as the subsequent expansion of agriculture and industry (Homer-Dixon, 1994). Additionally, the seasonality of water availability poses numerous challenges, with an abundance of fresh water during the monsoon season (June to October) and scarcity during the early summer months (December to May) (Rahman et al., 2022). This situation is influenced by the impact of trans-boundary rivers, as most of the major rivers are shared with either India (54 rivers) or Myanmar (3 rivers) (Khalequzzaman, 2019). Moreover, the complexity of the local water management system is amplified by water-dependent livelihoods with seasonal variations and the existence of numerous illegally possessed water bodies (Antonio et al., 2019).
While there is much discussion on the water crisis and trans-boundary water sharing issues, there has been limited reviewed documentation on local-level water management, despite its significant impact on the local economy and people’s well-being. In this review paper, amidst the numerous challenges of water management, we specifically concentrate on local-level water conflicts, which have received minimal attention from previous scholars. We contend that water conflicts, spanning from macro to micro levels, have undermined investments and excluded a significant portion of the community from community-based local-level water management. Therefore, this study seeks to answer the central research question: “How can local level water conflicts in Bangladesh, influenced by governance, resource allocation, and community participation, be understood and addressed through effective strategies and approaches?” The study evaluates water conflicts by examining shifts in water management and governance, potential influencing factors, as well as exploring potential strategies and approaches to address water conflicts at the community level.
2 Methods
The methodology employed in this scoping review involved a multi-step approach to address the research question. A systematic search strategy was devised, encompassing four databases - Scopus, Science direct, and online government report/MSc/PhD thesis from 1995 to 2023, with a focus only on English language publications. Keywords were “Water conflicts,” “Bangladesh.” Searches were conducted covering titles, abstracts, and keywords, with further exploration of reference lists for additional citations. Inclusion criteria encompassed the literature on water management and conflicts, with a particular emphasis on conflict management and mitigation aspects.
Data were managed using Mendeley for citations and excel for full-text articles, with pertinent information extracted. Out of 139 initially identified articles and reports, 55 were selected following duplicate removal, title and abstract screening, and the articles that are not focused on water conflict in Bangladesh with governance strategies aligning with the research question (Figure 1). The collated data underwent synthesis and summarization to highlight findings and research gaps, particularly within the local water sector.
Figure 1. Methodology for scoping review on water conflicts in Bangladesh.
3 Conflicts in water resources management: global to local context
The conflicts diverse geographical regions and involve a range of stakeholders, including countries, communities, farmers, indigenous groups, and marginalized populations (Table 1). The drivers of these conflicts vary from economic development and population growth to environmental factors, power dynamics, and political controversies. Each case study sheds light on specific water-related conflicts, such as transboundary water sharing, irrigation-induced salinity, land use disputes, and the impact of climate change on water resources.
Table 1. Synthesis of global water conflicts: a multifaceted analysis from various global basins.
Water resource conflicts typically begin as implicit and latent disputes among stakeholders and different groups, remaining unresolved until action is taken to assert rights and make decisions. However, if left unaddressed, these conflicts can escalate into manifest conflicts and, in some cases, even result in violence (Antonio et al., 2019).
A significant portion of the Earth’s land surface, approximately more than 45%, is located within international river basins, and there are numerous transboundary groundwater aquifers (Wolf et al., 1999). This distribution of water resources across borders has the potential to be a source of conflict among riparian states, as evident in conflicts (Homer-Dixon, 1994), such as the Jordan River Water Sharing, Transboundary water use in the Nile River Basin, and Water Management in the Murray-Darling Basin (Abel et al., 2016; Jury and Vaux, 2007; Merem et al., 2020). The transboundary water issues between India and Bangladesh also have an impact on the coastal region of Bangladesh, where a multitude of challenges arise due to climate change. These challenges include salinity intrusion, deltaic sedimentation, and water scarcity, which are further intensified by the backwater flow effect caused by low stream flow from upstream rivers (Baten and Titumir, 2016). Consequently, the local-level water management system within the coastal regions, particularly the southwest coastal region of Bangladesh, is significantly impacted, leading to conflicts among stakeholders (Baten and Titumir, 2016; Chowdhury, 2010). Disputes and conflicts exist among various local stakeholders and government institutions, including local farmers, shrimp-field owners, landless people, civil society organizations, daily-wage workers, NGOs, and local government bodies such as Union Parishads, Upazillas, and district administrations, as highlighted by Talchabhadel et al. (2021). With the stream splitting up, farmers from different areas would alternately construct and destroy temporary bunds to gain access to water. As rainfall declined, water crises increased, leading to fierce conflicts between farmers (Sultana and Thompson, 2017). Another case study by Mutahara (2018) discussed the issues surrounding Tidal River Management (TRM) in Bangladesh, where conflicts grew over time between 1990 and 2014. In Bangladesh, the nature of disputes between the community and management authorities underwent changes over time, shifting in magnitude and form. However, subsequent years witnessed a transformation, giving rise to conflicts between farmers and fishers from 1995, landowners and management authorities from 2000, and landowners and her owners from 2005 to 2014 (Pokrant, 2014). While conflicts between agriculture and shrimp farming in coastal Bangladesh are well-documented (Mushed, 2008), additional conflicts emerge among various user groups characterized by their livelihood types or geographical locations. Furthermore, conflicts can result from the implementation of different water management projects (Mushed, 2008), controlling over water structures (e.g., drainage canals or sluices) driven by local power dynamics (Mushed, 2008). These conflicts contribute to water insecurity for specific groups of people, further exacerbating the challenges faced. These examples illustrate the complexities and ramifications of water resource conflicts, emphasizing the need for effective management strategies, stakeholder engagement, and collaborative approaches to mitigate conflicts and promote sustainable water resource management (Iglesias et al., 2007).
4 Coastal Bangladesh: history of water management and water conflict
4.1 Shifts in water management and governance
Water management has been a prominent issue since ancient times, with evidence of water dams being constructed by Jordan and Egypt as early as 3,000–2,600 BC for water management purposes (Bansil, 2004). Throughout history, water has been recognized as a valuable resource and managed accordingly worldwide. In countries like India, water is often referred to as “liquid gold,” particularly in arid regions (Bansil, 2004). Bangladesh, being highly vulnerable to climate change due to its densely populated delta region, has also focused on water management. Significant public investments have been made since the 1960s to build water management infrastructure, such as embankments, to protect the land and people from floods, tides, and storms. Additionally, there is a history of informal collective action in water management within the country (Duyne, 1998). Since the early 1990s, Bangladesh has embraced participatory approaches to surface water management. The 1999 National Water Policy emphasized inclusive water management, and the Guideline for Participatory Water Management (GPWM) provided impetus to the participatory water management system in coastal Bangladesh (Blue Gold, 2021). Subsequently, best practices from the Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) and the Local Government Engineering Department (LGED) were consolidated and formalized in a participation guideline for all publicly funded water resource projects (Dewan et al., 2015; Dewan, 2012; Blue Gold, 2021). Projects like the Blue Gold Project in 2016, working in 14 coastal polders with 339 water management groups organized into 31 associations, and the IPSWAM initiative in 2004 exemplify these efforts. However, Bernier et al. (2016) found that water timing and release often rely on local elites, who may require payments, leading to the diversion of water for their interests. This can result in reduced water availability during the dry season, affecting crops or fisheries in other parts of the system.
4.2 Evolvement of water conflicts
Most of the water conflicts study in Bangladesh focuses on transboundary and local water conflicts, addressing governance challenges and resource allocation issues (see Table 2). Notable examples include the Teesta water dispute (Mahmud et al., 2021), Farakka Barrage conflict (Sood and Mathukumalli, 2011), local level water conflicts (Hasan, 2022; Parven and Hasan, 2018). These articles emphasize the necessity of strengthening bilateral treaties and establishing water-user committees to address regional disputes effectively. On the other hand, some of the articles captured coastal Bangladesh water management domain focusing on socio-environmental challenges in managing coastal resources, including salinity intrusion and competition between shrimp farming and rice cultivation (Huq and Easher, 2021). Policy implications emphasize the integration of salinity management into national plans and the diversification of crops to build resilience in affected communities. Dewan et al. (2014) and Nath et al. (2022) captured community-based approaches, exploring participatory governance framework that empower local stakeholders and marginalized groups. These studies demonstrate the success of inclusive approaches in resolving water conflicts and propose mainstreaming such frameworks into national policies in Bangladesh.
Table 2. Comprehensive overview water conflicts, water management challenges and governance strategies in Bangladesh.
In Bangladesh, water-related conflicts are indeed dynamic, much like the management of water resources, with a particular prevalence in the coastal areas, emanating from both macro and micro-level issues (Pahl-Wostl, 2015). At the macro level, these conflicts first emerge in relation to polder creation, the blocking of natural water flows, siltation, upstream intervention, and issues with structures such as the Farakka Dam (Roy, 2021). On the micro level, conflicts are often instigated by local actors, including political leaders and land grabbers, for personal or political gain, weakness in local governance structures, overlapping activities and jurisdictions among different institutions (Murshed-e-Jahan et al., 2014; Nath et al., 2020; Sultana et al., 2019). However, the creation of polders has contributed to an increase in these unpleasant water-related events (Nath et al., 2020) describes significant changes in livelihood strategies and practices since the establishment of polders, especially in the agriculture and fisheries sectors. The presence of numerous unplanned inlets into the polders has resulted in an elevated flow of salinity. Consequently, a significant portion of land use has shifted from agriculture and other natural resources (such as live vegetation, char1 land, khas2 land, etc.) to aquaculture (Nath et al., 2020). Most conflicts in Bangladesh, particularly those related to resources, arise from water or aquatic resources (Sultana et al., 2019). Nath et al. (2020) alienate and identify certain instigators (e.g., political leaders, land grabbers, local administrations, and officers) responsible for creating conflicts within polders. Marschke (2012) discusses coastal conflicts, highlighting that the coastal region’s diversity attracts various interest groups, leading to competition for water-based resources. The weakness of government and local institutions contributes to the emergence of latent water conflicts. Numerous studies have also focused on trans-boundary water issues, as conflicts in this regard have persisted since the country’s inception (Parven and Hasan, 2018). Conflicts with India and Myanmar serve as notable examples of trans-boundary water conflicts (Parven and Hasan, 2018). The occurrence of conflicts in a particular area depends on factors such as resource control and usage, relationships among stakeholders and user groups, and the governance institutions that exist (Murshed-e-Jahan et al., 2014). Access rights to water resources are a crucial factor contributing to conflicts in Bangladesh. Furthermore, the lack of regulations on local-level conflicts during project design and implementation serves as a complex aspect behind conflicts. The absence of effective formal structures for water management and, more importantly, conflict resolution bodies, along with limited coordination and overlapping activities and jurisdictions among different institutions, can further fuel water conflicts. Additionally, victims of conflicts sometimes struggle to identify the appropriate authorities to address their issues for resolution, as mandated by law.
5 Causes of water conflicts in coastal Bangladesh
Water conflicts worldwide have been predominantly driven by disputes over land, rivers, forests, and rights to access natural resources (Antonio et al., 2019). Extensive research conducted globally has identified the main drivers of natural resource-based conflicts, particularly in the context of water conflicts. These drivers include sociopolitical and socioeconomic influences on operations, lack of transparency, diplomatic complexities, rapid and imbalanced land use and land cover changes, and competitive use of water resources (Sultana et al., 2019). The evolution of water conflicts in coastal Bangladesh reflects shifts in governance and resource management practices over the time (see Table 3). In the past, localized, community-based water management was able to minimize conflicts due to reliance on natural flows (Dewan, 2012). Later on, introduced centralized, large-scale projects like the 1964 Master Plan, leading to disputes such as the Teesta and Ganges conflicts over resource allocation and land-use changes between shrimp and rice farmers (Mahmud et al., 2021; Chowdhury, 2010; Rahman et al., 2019). In the Participatory Era, decentralized policies like the 2001 Guidelines for Participatory Water Management sought to empower local communities but faced challenges, including mismanagement in TRM projects and resource allocation conflicts in participatory frameworks (Nath et al., 2022; Huq and Easher, 2021).
Table 3. Chronological evolution of water management policies, practices, and conflicts in coastal Bangladesh.
In the specific case of Bangladesh, researchers such as Abdullah et al. (2017) and Mushed (2008) have highlighted extensive shrimp farming, conflicting roles and unhealthy incentives among actors and stakeholders, and weak coastal infrastructures as major drivers of local-level water conflicts. Additionally, Sultana et al. (2019) have identified access disputes, power dynamics, environmental factors, and institutional settings as significant contributors to social unrest in coastal areas of Bangladesh (see Figure 1). It is noteworthy that while climatic issues are being partially addressed, other factors remain unresolved. Approximately 11% (over 17 million) of the country’s population is engaged in fisheries, while the agricultural sector, which employs 51.88% of the labor force, contributes 14% to the GDP. Additionally, around 24% of the land is classified as khas water bodies, with about 2 million hectares of khas land. Unfortunately, most of these water bodies have been illegally occupied by influential individuals, leaving only 5% of the water bodies leased to vulnerable groups (Antonio et al., 2019).
6 Ways to address water conflict at local stage
There is significant potential for progress in improving water management strategies to ensure efficient and conflict-free water use within communities. These strategies can encompass technical approaches such as irrigation scheduling, integrated water resource management, and conjunctive management of groundwater and surface water (see Table 4). They can also involve institutional aspects such as establishing appropriate institutions with defined responsibilities and activities, taking into account economic and political considerations. Additionally, a social approach focusing on changing behavioral patterns related to water use and management is crucial. The success of these strategies relies heavily on the active involvement of stakeholders in their development and implementation (Jury and Vaux, 2007).
Table 4. Comprehensive strategies for addressing local level water conflicts.
In order to address local water issues, it is important to emphasize improved crop rotations and the decentralization of technologies and techniques. These measures can have a significant impact not only on irrigated water resources but also on strategies related to rain fed water resources (Ochoa-Noriega et al., 2022). Cooperative management and a conservation ethic regarding shared resources, such as water, should be prioritized by Mirzaei and Zibaei (2021). To mitigate conflicts, it is highly recommended to implement policy implications that include the establishment of civil society organizations tasked with implementing a strategic plan to ensure the protection of human rights (Kuzdas et al., 2016; Sultana and Thompson, 2017). In Bangladesh, the Ministry of Water Resources formulated the National Water Policy in 1999 to ensure effective and impartial management of water resources, sustainable development of surface and groundwater, equitable access to water for all, and the establishment of institutional capacity for water resource management. The Bangladesh Water Act of 2013 is largely based on the National Water Policy of 1999 and aims to promote integrated development, management, distribution, utilization, protection, and conservation of water resources in Bangladesh (GOB, 2013). Several studies have identified measures to address conflicts through community participation, including workshops and meetings to ensure multi-stakeholder involvement in conflict management, the development of Participatory Action Plans (PAPD), the establishment of multi-stakeholder committees for conflict resolution, awareness raising among fishing communities, the use of informal institutions as conflict mediators, and regional cooperation (Murshed-e-Jahan et al., 2014; Mushed, 2008). Rijsberman (2006) suggests that addressing water scarcity can be achieved through a soft pathway that minimizes water conflicts. Stakeholder Analysis (SA) is particularly relevant in situations where resources, such as forests, land, water, and irrigation systems, are managed as common property or when traditional institutions governing communal use and management are deteriorating. SA is also valuable when resources are officially owned by the state but function as open access resources in practice (Renner and Opiyo, 2021). Moreover, stakeholders at different levels have distinct interests and agendas, ranging from government departments, environmental pressure groups, and commercial interests to local farmers. In such diverse contexts, where stakeholders have varying interests, cognitive frameworks, and economic circumstances, SA can be particularly valuable compared to situations where stakeholders may have similar interests and homogeneity exists (Mutahara et al., 2020; Renner and Opiyo, 2021).
Since mid-1980s Community-based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) has been an integral part of natural resource management and development discourse (Dewan et al., 2014). Community-based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) is founded on the simple and appealing premise that communities, as characterized by their distinct and integrated social structure and shared interests, can manage their natural resources in an effective, equitable, and sustainable manner (Blaikie, 2006). In recent days, community-based organizations are participating in the water resource management sector and influenced recent water policy in Bangladesh through the Guidelines for Participatory Water Management (GPWM) (Dewan et al., 2014). This power-sharing decentralized and interest-based resource management system increases efficiency, equity, sustainability and democratic participation through the evaluation of cost and benefits of public services and goods (Dewan et al., 2014). However, Dewan et al. (2014) demonstrates that decentralization does not always involve democratic decentralization, the latter referring primarily to the transfer of powers to existing locally elected democratic government institutions.
Therefore, major financial donors such as the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) advice that Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT) is best suited water management system for the developing and underdeveloped countries (Mukherji et al., 2009). They also suggest that since water service provision is the core management problem in government-managed irrigation systems, a mix method approach— presence of IMT, participatory irrigation management (PIM) and proper government provision should be present in water ‘service’ arrangements (Mukherji et al., 2009). Bangladesh was significantly involved in promoting CBNRM and decentralized water management in its water policy reforms. However, Dewan et al. (2014) contends that there is a gap between participation in policy versus participation in practice. In order to establish a proper water governance through CBNRM, democratically elected local governments in water management must be established, local government in water management should be formally recognized, and maintenance funds should be increased and made permanent through existing funding channels (Dewan et al., 2014).
Transformative analysis focuses on the “in-depth case studies; the acute assessment of existing arrangements; the interpretation of strategies to deflect transformation; the identification of destructive cooperation; and the strategic classification of opportunities for transformation” (Zeitoun et al., 2020, p.2). Even though ‘transformative analysis’ (Zeitoun et al., 2020) is a well-establish transboundary water dispute management system, it can be applied to local-level water conflict management as well. As Dewan et al. (2014) demonstrates, local level water conflict management requires decentralization, community engagement and participation, and transference of powers to existing locally elected democratic government institutions. Transformative analysis would be an ideal inclusion in local-level water management Community-based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM).
The four methods of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) or Pacific way of dispute resolution is an effective way of water governance and conflict management and are well-known in international dispute resolution (Nader, 2002). These four ADR methods can also be applied in local-level water dispute management. A study in Guanacaste Province, Costa Rica, by Kuzdas et al. (2016) investigated the reasons behind local water conflicts and their escalation to violence. The findings revealed that violent actions occurred when rural groups opposed government agencies without mediating leadership. Distrust and ineffective rural stakeholder engagement diminished the credibility of water-related information, prolonging conflicts. The study outlines practical conflict mitigation strategies for local water governance contexts in rural Central America, emphasizing the need for peace-building processes in water management and development. This knowledge can help policymakers, water managers, and stakeholders effectively manage water disputes and avoid harmful conflicts in challenging regions.
7 Discussions
This review elucidates the intricacy and multifaceted nature of conflict in the coastal region of Bangladesh and suggests solutions based on previous scholarly works. The analysis identifies that the catalysts of water conflict in coastal regions of Bangladesh encompass conflicting roles and discerning incentives among actors and stakeholders, inadequate coastal infrastructure (Abdullah et al., 2017; Bulleri and Chapman, 2010; Islam and Tabeta, 2019; Mushed, 2008; Naz and Buisson, 2015; Ziaul and Akter, 2018), power dynamics, environmental factors, and institutional frameworks (Sultana et al., 2019). Figure 1 illustrates the most common factors contributing to water resource conflicts identified by Sultana et al. (2019). These factors (e.g., access disputes, climate-related pressures, and institutional gaps etc.) resonate with the challenges faced in managing local water resources in Bangladesh. For illustration, access disputes, identified as the most prevalent conflict driver (60%), often arise in Bangladesh from competing demands between shrimp farmers and rice farmers. While climate factors such as salinity intrusion and cyclones exacerbate these tensions. Addressing these conflicts requires a multipronged approach that integrates technical solutions (e.g., salinity tolerant crops), institutional reforms (e.g., decentralized governance), and community engagement through participatory frameworks. It is further aggravated by climate change and its effects, including salinity intrusion, deltaic sedimentation, and water scarcity (Baten and Titumir, 2016; Mojid, 2020). The findings highlight that conflicts can result from the implementation of different water management projects such as polder creation, dam construction (Mushed, 2008), controlling over water structures (e.g., drainage canals or sluices) driven by local power dynamics (Faruque, 2009; Mozahedy, 2011; Mushed, 2008). The shift from traditional, informal water management practices to more formal, but often fragmented, systems has also contributed to these challenges. These issues are also the potential reasons of conflict in the context of transboundary water resources especially in a situation of power asymmetries among riparian states (Dombrowsky, 2010; Gleick, 1993; Homer-Dixon, 1994; Klare, 2001; Zeitoun and Warner, 2006).
Regarding the transboundary water backflow effect induced by diminished stream flow from upstream rivers (Baten and Titumir, 2016; Mojid, 2020). In the southwestern region of Bangladesh, the timing and release of water frequently depend on local elites, who may demand payments, resulting in the diversion of water for their personal purposes. This may lead to diminished water availability in the dry season, impacting agriculture or fisheries in other regions of the system (Bernier et al., 2016). The question of power dynamics is a crucial element in water-related conflicts within a transboundary framework. Conflicts between India and Myanmar exemplify significant trans-boundary water disputes (Gupta, 2020; Parven and Hasan, 2018; The Daily Star, 2012). Disproportionate and dubious resource management and utilization, interactions among stakeholders and user groups, and governance institutions are critical determinants (Murshed-e-Jahan et al., 2014). For instance, India, as a hegemon, regulates the majority of water discharge through the construction of 53 dams, leading to overflow during the monsoon and water scarcity during the dry season in northern Bangladesh (Islam and Mondal, 2017). As Marschke (2012) highlights that the water conflict in the coastal region of Bangladesh is also driven by the multiple stakeholders and their diverse interest and usage of water due to competition over limited resources. For instance, this competing demand and conflicting values and interest are significant factor of conflict in Colorado River basin (CRB) (Ingram et al., 2008).
This paper also emphasizes several techniques for managing local conflicts that might be further applied in a transboundary context. It asserts that a social approach, which requires the active participation of stakeholders in both creation and execution, is essential for effective water conflict management (Jury and Vaux, 2007). Similar approach can also be implemented in transboundary context. Bray (2021) emphasizes equitable funding opportunities and collaborative decision-making processes to address water issues among stakeholders in the Colorado River Basin. Furthermore, prioritizing stakeholders imposes the recognition of water as a fundamental human right within the water governance framework (Annaraj, 2012; Kurmanalieva and Crewett, 2019; Kuzdas et al., 2016; Mitchell and Zawahri, 2015; Sultana and Thompson, 2017). Abboud et al. (2022) stressed that implementing an improved water governance system in the CRB requires alternative reservoir operating rules or design operating rules that prioritize stakeholder demands. A power-sharing, decentralized, and interest-based resource management system enhances efficiency, equity, sustainability, and democratic participation by assessing the costs and benefits of public services and goods (Dewan et al., 2014), applicable in both local and transboundary contexts. However, in a diverse context, where stakeholders have varying interests, cognitive frameworks, and economic circumstances, i.e., in transboundary and in an area of highly competing demands, i.e., CRB this may have significant drawbacks where sustainable stakeholder participation is difficult and stakeholders have conflicting values and interests, different govt, or policy institutions.
8 Conclusion
Dynamics of water conflicts in Bangladesh, particularly in its coastal regions stem from various factors, including transboundary disputes, local level governance issues, competition among livelihood groups, and the impacts of climate change. For example, the Teesta and Ganges disputes exemplify transboundary tensions, while local issues (such as conflicts between shrimp farmers and rice cultivators in southwestern Bangladesh) underscore the challenges of resource allocation and governance (Mahmud et al., 2021; Rahman et al., 2019; Chowdhury, 2010). To address these conflicts, it requires an integrated approach, combining technical measures (adoption of salinity-tolerant crops and the implementation of conjunctive management systems), institutional reforms (decentralization, stakeholder engagement, establishment of clear governance frameworks), and social strategies (participatory water management and community-based conflict resolution, are crucial for fostering cooperation and equity among stakeholders).
Furthermore, the importance of aligning local practices with national policies, such as the National Water Policy (1999) and the Bangladesh Water Act (2013) need to be considered. Innovative frameworks like Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) and transformative analyses have the potential to address local and transboundary water conflicts effectively. These strategies not only promote sustainable water resource management but also emphasize the role of participatory governance in minimizing conflict and enhancing resilience. Theoretically, this review contributes to understanding the drivers of water conflicts and the interconnected nature of governance, community participation, and resource allocation. It may provide actionable strategies, including stakeholder engagement, participatory governance models, and conflict resolution mechanisms, to mitigate these conflicts. The study has several limitations as it relies heavily on secondary data and existing literature, which may not fully capture the evolving nature and localized nuances of water conflicts in Bangladesh. The geographic scope of the analysis is limited to selected regions, potentially overlooking other areas where water conflicts are equally significant but less documented. Though the study identifies actionable strategies, it does not include primary data or stakeholder consultations to validate these recommendations. To address these gaps, future research should focus on collecting primary data through field studies, involving diverse stakeholders (e.g., farmers, policymakers, community leaders). Longitudinal research might be a good option to assess the temporal dynamics of water conflicts and the effectiveness of implemented strategies. Expanding the analysis to include comparative case studies from other regions or countries facing similar challenges could further enrich the findings and strengthen the applicability of the proposed solutions.
Author contributions
MHH: Conceptualization, Data curation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Supervision, Writing – review & editing, Funding acquisition, Validation, Visualization. MJH: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Validation, Visualization. SAN: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Validation, Visualization.
Funding
The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Publication funding from Graduate & Professional Student Association (GPSA) of Arizona State University (PG15556 GPSA Publication Grant 2024 -2025), which supported the publication of this manuscript.
Acknowledgments
Our profound appreciation goes to Arizona State University and the Graduate & Professional Student Association (GPSA) for awarding the Publication Grant (2024–2025), which supported the publication of this manuscript. Their provision of an inspiring academic environment and essential resources was instrumental in facilitating the accomplishment of this comprehensive review. We also wish to extend our heartfelt thanks to the countless authors whose work has significantly contributed to the body of knowledge explored in this review. Their scholarship serves as the foundation for our research. We are deeply grateful to Dr. Monica McDermott for her valuable comments and insightful suggestions, which greatly improved the quality of this manuscript.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
Footnotes
1. ^The term “Char” is often used in various nomenclatures to denote sedimentary islands found within river floodplains.
2. ^The term “Khas land” pertains to land that is under the direct jurisdiction and supervision of the government. The definition of Khas land may be found in section 2(15) of the (Law of Bangladesh, 1950).
References
Abboud, H., Baker, E., Baiotto, T., Weigand, C., and Quinn, J. (2022). Optimizing for Water Equity in the Colorado River Basin. Syst. Inform. Eng. Design Sympos. 2022, 190–195. doi: 10.1109/SIEDS55548.2022.9799309
Abdullah, A. N., Myers, B., Stacey, N., Zander, K. K., and Garnett, S. T. (2017). The impact of the expansion of shrimp aquaculture on livelihoods in coastal Bangladesh. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 19, 2093–2114. doi: 10.1007/s10668-016-9824-5
Abel, N., Wise, R. M., Colloff, M. J., Walker, B. H., Butler, J. R. A., Ryan, P., et al. (2016). Building resilient pathways to transformation when “no one is in charge”: insights from Australia's Murray-darling basin. Ecol. Soc. 21:art23. doi: 10.5751/ES-08422-210223
Annaraj, D. (2012). “Sri Lanka: conflict mitigation through community-based water resource management,” in CPCS peace practitioners’ research conference, Siem Reap, Cambodia.
Antonio, B. Q., Pagsanghan, J., and Marquez, N. D. (2019). In Defense of Land Rights: A Monitoring Report on Land Conflicts in Six Asian Countries Asian NGO Coalition for Agrarian Reform and Rural Development – ANGOC.
Baten, M. A., and Titumir, R. A. M. (2016). Environmental challenges of trans-boundary water resources management: the case of Bangladesh. Sustain. Water Res. Manag. 2, 13–27. doi: 10.1007/s40899-015-0037-0
Bernier, Q., Sultana, P., Bell, A. R., and Ringler, C. (2016). Water management and livelihood choices in southwestern Bangladesh [Article]. J. Rural. Stud. 45, 134–145. doi: 10.1016/j.jrurstud.2015.12.017
Blaikie, P. (2006). Is Small Really Beautiful? Community-based Natural Resource Management in Malawi and Botswana. World Dev. 34, 1942–1957. doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2005.11.023
Blue Gold. (2021). Blue Gold Lessons Learnt Wiki. Dhaka, Bangladesh. Available at: https://www.bluegoldwiki.com/index.php?title=Blue_Gold_Lessons_Learnt_Wiki (Accessed July 21, 2024).
Bray, L. A. (2021). Settler Colonialism and Rural Environmental Injustice: Water Inequality on the Navajo Nation [Article]. Rural. Sociol. 86, 586–610. doi: 10.1111/ruso.12366
Bulleri, F., and Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in marine environments. J. Appl. Ecol. 47, 26–35. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x
Chan, N. W., Roy, R., and Chaffin, B. C. (2016). Water governance in Bangladesh: An evaluation of institutional and political context. Water 8:403. doi: 10.3390/w8090403
Chowdhury, N. T. (2010). Water management in Bangladesh: an analytical review. Water Policy 12, 32–51. doi: 10.2166/wp.2009.112
Connor, R. (2015). Water for a sustainable world: the United Nations world water development report 2015. Paris, France: United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization.
Dedina, S. (1995). The political ecology of transboundary development: Land use, flood control and politics in the Tijuana river valley. J. Borderl. Stud. 10, 89–110. doi: 10.1080/08865655.1995.9695467
Dewan, C. (2012). Review of the historical evolution of policies and institutions of community based management in coastal Bangladesh. Bangladesh: G3 Water Governance and Community Based Management. Colombo: International Water Management Institute (IWMI).
Dewan, C., Buisson, M.-C., and Mukherji, A. (2014). The imposition of participation? The case of participatory water management in coastal Bangladesh. Water Altern. 7, 342–366.
Dewan, C., Mukherji, A., and Buisson, M. C. (2015). Evolution of water management in coastal Bangladesh: from temporary earthen embankments to depoliticized community-managed polders. Water Int. 40, 401–416. doi: 10.1080/02508060.2015.1025196
Dombrowsky, I. (2010). The role of intra-water sector issue linkage in the resolution of transboundary water conflicts. Water Int. 35, 132–149. doi: 10.1080/02508061003664013
Duyne, J. E. (1998). Local initiatives: People’s water management practices in rural Bangladesh. Dev. Policy Rev. 16, 265–280. doi: 10.1111/1467-7679.00064
El-Fadel, M., Zeinati, M., and Jamali, D. (2000). Water resources in Lebanon: Characterization, water balance and constraints. Int. J. Water Resour. Dev. 16, 615–638. doi: 10.1080/713672540
Faruque, S. B. (2009). Multipurpose use of Hazir khal by making provision for community proposed flow control gate at a culvert. [MSc Thesis]. Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Available at: http://lib.buet.ac.bd:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/2666/Full%20Thesis%20.pdf?sequence=1 (Accessed September 22, 2024).
Gleick, P. H. (1993). Water in crisis: a guide to the world’s fresh water resources. New York: Oxford University Press.
GOB (2013). Bangladesh Water Act, 2013. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh.
Gupta, A. (2020). The Politicization of Water: Transboundary Water-Conflict in the Indian Subcontinent. Honors Papers. Available at: https://digitalcommons.oberlin.edu/honors/690 (Accessed August 10, 2024).
Hasan, M. H. (2022). Study of changing water conflicts and their implications for water security in polder-29. [MSc Thesis]. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology. Available at: http://lib.buet.ac.bd:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/6478 (Accessed September 10, 2024).
Heady, C. (1998). Natural resource management and poverty reduction. Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei, Working Paper No. 63.98, Milano. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.142007
Hirsch, P., and Wyatt, A. (2004). Negotiating local livelihoods: scales of conflict in the Se San River Basin. Asia Pac. Viewp. 45, 51–68. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8376.2004.00227.x
Hoanh, C. T., Tuong, T. P., Gowing, J. W., and Hardy, B. (2006). Environment and livelihoods in tropical coastal zones: managing agriculture-fishery-aquaculture conflicts. Wallingford, UK: CABI.
Homer-Dixon, T. F. (1994). Environmental scarcities and violent conflict [Article]. Int. Secur. 19:5. doi: 10.2307/2539147
Huq, H., and Easher, T. H. (2021). Coastal Water: Wisdom, Destruction, Conflicts and Contestation–A Case of Southwest Coastal Region of Bangladesh. IntechOpen: London, UK.
Iglesias, A., Garrote, L., Flores, F., and Moneo, M. (2007). Challenges to Manage the Risk of Water Scarcity and Climate Change in the Mediterranean. Water Resour. Manag. 21, 775–788. doi: 10.1007/s11269-006-9111-6
Ingram, H., Whiteley, J. M., and Perry, R. (2008). “The Importance of Equity and the Limits of Efficiency in Water Resources” in Water, Place, and Equity. eds. J. M. Whiteley, H. Ingram, and R. W. Perry (London: The MIT Press), 1–32.
Islam, S., and Mondal, S. H. (2017). Chronological trends in maximum and minimum water flows of the Teesta River, Bangladesh, and its implications. Jamba 9, 1–11. doi: 10.4102/jamba.v9i1.373
Islam, M. R., and Tabeta, S. (2019). Shrimp vs prawn-rice farming in Bangladesh: A comparative impacts study on local environments and livelihoods. Ocean Coastal Manag. 168, 167–176. doi: 10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2018.11.004
Jury, W. A., and Vaux, H. J. (2007). “The emerging global water crisis: Managing scarcity and conflict between water users,” in Advances in Agronomy. ed. D. L. Sparks (United States), 95, 1–76.
Khalequzzaman, M. D. (2019). Transboundary River Flow: The Future of Bangladesh Depends on It. Dhaka, Bangladesh: The Daily Star.
Kibaroglu, A., and Sayan, R. C. (2021). Water and ‘imperfect peace’ in the Euphrates–Tigris river basin [Article]. Int. Affairs 97, 139–155. doi: 10.1093/ia/iiaa161
Klare, M. (2001). The new geography of conflict (vol 80, pg 49, 2001). Foreign Affairs 80:157. doi: 10.2307/20050150
Kurmanalieva, G., and Crewett, W. (2019). Institutional design, informal practices and international conflict: The case of community-based pasture management in the Kyrgyz-Tajik border region. Pastoralism 9:15. doi: 10.1186/s13570-019-0145-9
Kuzdas, C., Warner, B., Wiek, A., Yglesias, M., Vignola, R., and Ramírez-Cover, A. (2016). Identifying the potential of governance regimes to aggravate or mitigate local water conflicts in regions threatened by climate change. Local Environ. 21, 1387–1408. doi: 10.1080/13549839.2015.1129604
Law of Bangladesh (1950). State Acquisition and Tenancy Act East Bengal Act, 1950. Available at: http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-241.html (Accessed October 22, 2024).
Mahmud, T., Sifa, S. F., Islam, N. N., Rafsan, M. A., Kamal, A. M., Hossain, M. S., et al. (2021). Drought dynamics of Northwestern Teesta Floodplain of Bangladesh: a remote sensing approach to ascertain the cause and effect. Environ. Monit. Assess. 193, 1–19. doi: 10.1007/s10661-021-09005-1
Merem, E. C., Twumasi, Y. A., Wesley, J., Olagbegi, D., Crisler, M., Romorno, C., et al. (2020). Issues in Transboundary Water Use in the River Nile Basin Area of Africa. World Environ. 10, 27–44. doi: 10.5923/j.env.20201002.01
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2008). Living beyond our means: natural assets and human well-being. Washington, DC: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment.
Mirzaei, A., and Zibaei, M. (2021). Water Conflict Management between Agriculture and Wetland under Climate Change: Application of Economic-Hydrological-Behavioral Modelling [Article]. Water Resour. Manag. 35, 1–21. doi: 10.1007/s11269-020-02703-4
Mitchell, S. M., and Zawahri, N. A. (2015). The effectiveness of treaty design in addressing water disputes. J. Peace Res. 52, 187–200. doi: 10.1177/0022343314559623
Mojid, M. A. (2020). Climate change-induced challenges to sustainable development in Bangladesh. In IOP conference series: earth and environmental science.
MOWR (2000). Guidelines for participatory water management, ministries of water resources and local government, rural development and cooperatives, government of Bangladesh, Dhaka. Available at: https://warpo.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/warpo.portal.gov.bd/page/13e59421_7437_4cf1_ab12_983caa073116/GPWM.pdf (Accessed November 05, 2024).
Mozahedy, A. B. M. K. (2011). Social perceptions and technical evaluation of performance of selected water control structures in Narail district. [MSc Thesis]. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology. Available at: http://lib.buet.ac.bd:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/4147/Full%20Thesis.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (Accessed October 19, 2024).
Mukherji, A., Fuleki, B., Shah, T., Suhardiman, D., Giordano, M., and Weligamage, P. (2009). Irrigation reforms in Asia: A review of 108 cases of irrigation management transfer, IWMI Research Reports, 118. Colombo: International Water Management Institute.
Murshed-e-Jahan, K., Belton, B., and Viswanathan, K. (2014). Communication strategies for managing coastal fisheries conflicts in Bangladesh. Ocean Coastal Manag. 92, 65–73. doi: 10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2014.01.003
Mushed, S. B. (2008). Management of conflicts between irrigation and fisheries in a selected water resources project. [MSc Theses]. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology. Available at: http://lib.buet.ac.bd:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/1965/Full%20%20Thesis%20.pdf?sequence=1
Mutahara, M. (2018). Turning the tide?: The role of participation and learning in strengthening Tidal River Management in the Bangladesh Delta. Wageningen: Wageningen University and Research.
Mutahara, M., Warner, J., and Khan, M. S. A. (2019). Analyzing the coexistence of conflict and cooperation in a regional delta management system: Tidal River Management (TRM) in the Bangladesh delta. Environ. Policy Gov. 29, 326–343. doi: 10.1002/eet.1863
Mutahara, M., Warner, J. F., and Khan, M. S. A. (2020). Multi-stakeholder participation for sustainable delta management: a challenge of the socio-technical transformation in the management practices in Bangladesh. Int. J. Sustain. Dev. World Ecol. 27, 611–624. doi: 10.1080/13504509.2020.1722278
Nader, L. (2002). The Life of the Law: Anthropological Projects. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Nath, S., Shams, J., van Laerhoven, F., and Driessen, P. (2022). The impact of decision-making on conflict: Rethinking the roles of technocrats and residents during Tidal River Management in coastal Bangladesh. Land Use Policy 117:106103. doi: 10.1016/j.landusepol.2022.106103
Nath, S., van, F., Driessen, P., and Nadiruzzaman, M. (2020). Capital, rules or conflict? Factors affecting livelihood-strategies, infrastructure-resilience, and livelihood-vulnerability in the polders of Bangladesh [Article]. Sustain. Sci. 15, 1169–1183. doi: 10.1007/s11625-020-00818-6
Naz, F., and Buisson, M. C. (2015). “Multiple actors, conflicting roles and perverse incentives: The case of poor operation and maintenance of coastal polders in Bangladesh,” in Revitalizing the ganges coastal zone: Turning science into policy and practices conference proceedings. Colombo, Sri Lanka: CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food (CPWF). 600pp (p. 147).
Ochoa-Noriega, C., Velasco-Muñoz, J. F., Aznar-Sánchez, J. A., and López-Felices, B. (2022). Analysis of the Acceptance of Sustainable Practices in Water Management for the Intensive Agriculture of the Costa de Hermosillo (Mexico). Agronomy 12:154. doi: 10.3390/agronomy12010154
Oyarzabal-Tamargo, F., and Young, R. A. (1977). The Colorado River Salinity Problem: Direct Economic Damages in Mexico [Article]. West. J. Agric. Econ. 1, 7–14.
Parven, A., and Hasan, M. (2018). Trans-boundary water conflicts between Bangladesh and India: water governance practice for conflict resolution [Article]. Int. J. Agric. Res. Innov. Technol. 8, 79–84. doi: 10.3329/ijarit.v8i1.38233
Peachey, E. J. (2004). The Aral Sea Basin crisis and sustainable water resource management in Central Asia [Article]. J. Public Int. Affairs 15, 1–20.
Pokrant, B. (2014). “Brackish Water Shrimp Farming and the Growth of Aquatic Monocultures in Coastal Bangladesh,” in Historical Perspectives of Fisheries Exploitation in the Indo-Pacific. ed. J. T. M. Christensen, vol. 12 (Netherlands: MARE Publication Series Springer), 107–132.
Rahman, A., Jahan, S., Yildirim, G., Alim, M. A., Haque, M. M., Rahman, M. M., et al. (2022). A review and analysis of water research, development, and management in Bangladesh. Water 14:1834. doi: 10.3390/w14121834
Rahman, K. S., Islam, Z., Navera, U. K., and Ludwig, F. (2019). A critical review of the Ganges Water Sharing arrangement. Water Policy 21, 259–276. doi: 10.2166/wp.2019.164
Renner, J., and Opiyo, F. (2021). Stakeholders’ interactions in managing water resources conflicts: a case of Lake Naivasha, Kenya. Zeitschrift Für Wirtschaftsgeographie 65, 165–181. doi: 10.1515/zfw-2019-0024
Rijsberman, F. R. (2006). Water scarcity: Fact or fiction? Agric. Water Manag. 80, 5–22. doi: 10.1016/j.agwat.2005.07.001
Roy, S. (2021). Local preferences for resilience a comparative study of two water-logged south-western villages in bhobodoho. Bangladesh. [MSc Thesis]. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology. Available at: http://lib.buet.ac.bd:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/6440
Shackleton, S., and Campbel, B. (2001). Devolution in natural resource management: institutional arrangements and power shifts: a synthesis of case studies from southern Africa. Bogor, Indonesia: CIFOR.
Sood, A., and Mathukumalli, B. K. P. (2011). Managing international river basins: reviewing India–Bangladesh transboundary water issues. Intl. J. River Basin Management 9, 43–52. doi: 10.1080/15715124.2011.553832
Sultana, P., and Thompson, P. M. (2017). Adaptation or conflict? Responses to climate change in water management in Bangladesh. Environ. Sci. Pol. 78, 149–156. doi: 10.1016/j.envsci.2017.09.011
Sultana, P., Thompson, P. M., Paudel, N. S., Pariyar, M., and Rahman, M. (2019). Transforming local natural resource conflicts to cooperation in a changing climate: Bangladesh and Nepal lessons. Clim. Pol. 19, S94–S106. doi: 10.1080/14693062.2018.1527678
Talchabhadel, R., Kawaike, K., and Nakagawa, H. (2021). “Temporary De-Poldering for a Long Term Flood/Sediment Management in the Southwestern Bangladesh,” in River Basin Management - Sustainability Issues and Planning Strategies. ed. J. S. Antunes Do Carmo (London, UK: IntechOpen). doi: 10.5772/intechopen.95265
Tamas, P. (2003). Water resource scarcity and conflict: Review of applicable indicators and systems of reference. 75th Edn. Paris: Unesco.
The Daily Star. (2012). A ‘Great Win’ for Bangladesh. Available at: https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-227828 (Accessed October 20, 2024).
Wolf, A. T., Natharius, J. A., Danielson, J. J., Ward, B. S., and Pender, J. K. (1999). International River Basins of the World. Int. J. Water Resour. Dev. 15, 387–427. doi: 10.1080/07900629948682
Zeitoun, M., Mirumachi, N., Warner, J., Kirkegaard, M., and Cascão, A. (2020). Analysis for water conflict transformation. Water Int. 45, 365–384. doi: 10.1080/02508060.2019.1607479
Zeitoun, M., and Warner, J. (2006). Hydro-hegemony - A framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts. Water Policy 8, 435–460. doi: 10.2166/wp.2006.054
Keywords: water resources conflicts, water management, local level water conflicts, community-based natural resource management, coastal water governance, local level water management, sustainable water conflict resolution
Citation: Hasan MH, Hossain MJ and Nipa SA (2025) Navigating water discord: a review of water conflicts in the common resource management system in coastal areas. Front. Water. 6:1405601. doi: 10.3389/frwa.2024.1405601
Edited by:
Marcus Nüsser, Heidelberg University, GermanyCopyright © 2025 Hasan, Hossain and Nipa. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Md Hasibul Hasan, bWhhc2FuNDBAYXN1LmVkdQ==
†ORCID: Md Hasibul Hasan, orcid.org/0000-0001-8240-4946
Mohammad Jobayer Hossain, orcid.org/0000-0001-6038-7938
Sultana Afrin Nipa, orcid.org/0009-0007-0605-6610