Factors affecting the quality and nutritional value of donkey meat: a comprehensive review

Donkey meat is characterized by a high content of proteins, essential amino acids, and unsaturated fatty acids and is low in fat, cholesterol, and calories. Thus, it is considered a high-quality source of meat. Based on the data from PubMed and Web of science within past 10 years, this review summarizes the factors affecting the quality of donkey meat and its nutritional value, including breed, genetics, gender, age, muscle type, feeding regimen, storage and processing conditions. Breed, gender, age, and feeding regimen mainly affect the quality of donkey meat by influencing its intramuscular fat content and carcass quality. Meanwhile, the tenderness and flavor of donkey meat depend on the muscle type, storage and processing conditions. Genetics, on the other hand, fundamentally affect donkey meat quality by influencing the polymorphism of genes. These findings provide valuable insights and guidance for producers, consumers, and decision-makers in the donkey meat industry, promoting the development of more effective marketing strategies and the improvement of meat quality, thereby enabling the expansion and progress of the entire industry.

1 Introduction

Donkeys have historically played a crucial role in agricultural production. However, as production processes, machinery, and lifestyles have evolved, donkeys are now increasingly being used for the production of meat, skin, dairy, and other products. In particular, donkey meat production has emerged as an important area of focus. From an economic perspective, China boasts one of the largest populations of donkeys around the world. This has promoted the development of a significant industry centered around donkey meat, milk, and hide production in rural areas of China. Notably, this industry has become a crucial source of income for local people living in rural areas, stimulating the local economy (1, 2).

From a nutritional perspective, donkey meat may have a better nutritional value than pork and mutton. Donkey meat is high in protein and low in fat. A study has shown that a high-protein diet may lower liver fat by inhibiting fat absorption and reducing fatty acid biosynthesis, so donkey meat may be an excellent choice for individuals pursuing fitness goals or aiming to lose weight (3). Furthermore, promoting the growth of the donkey meat industry can enhance the diversity of meat production in China. Currently, livestock such as cattle, pigs, and sheep dominate the meat market (4, 5). However, introducing donkey meat as a new option could expand consumers’ choices, thus decreasing the over-reliance on traditional livestock. Notably, donkeys not only possess remarkable adaptability and resilience to drought and cold but also thrive in harsh environmental conditions (6–8). In certain environments, donkeys may prove more cost-effective to raise and may utilize resources more efficiently than other livestock, thereby reducing the pressure on environmental resources. In essence, expanding the donkey meat industry could have several benefits — diversifying meat production, reducing dependence on traditional livestock, and enhancing resource efficiency.

Nonetheless, the donkey meat industry in China is still in its nascent stages due to the lack of foundational research and the dearth of standardized feeding practices. To aid in the advancement of the donkey industry, this paper comprehensively reviews the primary factors known to influence donkey meat quality. We believe this review could provide the latest progress of producing high-quality meat and new insights for product innovation in the donkey meat industry.

2 Nutritional value of donkey meat

Donkey meat has a high nutritional value and unique flavor. Compared with other popular types of meat such as beef and mutton, donkey meat has a higher content of proteins, vitamins, and minerals and is lower in fat and cholesterol (Table 1) (9–11). Thus, from a health perspective, donkey meat is a good alternative to traditional meats (12).

Table 1

Table 1. Nutritional composition of meat (84, 85).

Intramuscular fat (IMF) content is an important determinant of meat quality characteristics such as tenderness and juiciness (13, 14). Thus, it is an important index for measuring meat quality (15). Meat with a low IMF content is drier and has a poor flavor. Intracellular fatty acids, which can act individually or form larger molecules, have diverse functions (16). Donkey meat has a higher content of essential fatty acids, especially polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), than livestock and poultry meats (17, 18). The high ratio between unsaturated and saturated fatty acids (SFA) in donkey meat induces a high degree of unsaturation in the IMF of donkey meat (19, 20). Additionally, the content of essential amino acids (essential AA) in donkey meat is higher than that of non-essential amino acids (non-essential AA) (21).

The most common nutritional indices of donkey meat, including the index of atherogenicity (IA) and thrombogenicity (IT) (22) and the health promotion index (HPI) (23), have been estimated using the below-mentioned formulae (24) (Table 2).

$IA=\left[C12:0+\left(4\times C14:0\right)+C16:0\right]/\left(\sum UFA\right)$

$\begin{array}{l}\mathit{IT}=\left(\mathrm{C}14:0+\mathrm{C}16:0+\mathrm{C}18:0\right)\\ /\left[\begin{array}{l}\left(0.5\times \sum \mathit{MUFA}\right)+\left(0.5\times \sum n6-\mathit{PUFA}\right)\\ +\left(3\times \sum n3-\mathit{PUFA}\right)+\left(n3/n6\right)\end{array}\right]\end{array}$

$HPI=\left(\sum UFA\right)/\left[C12:0+\left(4\times C14:0\right)+C16:0\right]$

Table 2

Table 2. Nutritional value assessment of donkey meat (9).

Flavor is a sensory attribute of food that is perceived through its taste and smell and is the main determinant of meat quality (25, 26). Aldehydes are important flavor compounds in the meat derived from donkeys, cattle, pigs, and sheep. Among these different types of meat, donkey meat has the highest content of aldehydes. Specifically, aldehydes — especially hexanal — account for 76.39% of the total flavor compounds present in donkey meat (27). Moreover, owing to its high content of sweet and umami amino acids, donkey meat is more flavorful than other meats. Thus, it has the potential to become a unique and preferred choice of meat for a wide range of consumers.

3 Effect of breed on donkey meat quality

The emergence of donkey breeds, uniquely adapted to the specific characteristics of their native regions, was influenced not only by geographical and climatic conditions but also by human-selected breeding (28–31). A comparison of carcass traits and meat quality between two donkey breeds from the Mediterranean region showed that North African donkey (NAD) meat had a higher final weight, IMF content, and hue value, while Masri donkey (MD) meat had a higher cold dressing percentage and cooking loss value (21). Given that high cooking loss values can reduce meat tenderness, these findings indicated that NAD meat is more tender.

As mentioned previously, the content of fatty acid plays a crucial role in determining meat quality. One study compared the fatty acid content of meat from Burguete foals (BF) and Hispano-Breton foals (HBF). This study found that the content of SFA and mono-unsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) was lower in the meat from BF than in that from HBF, while the content of PUFA was higher (32).

Interestingly, the quality of donkey meat can differ even among different subpopulations of the same breed. A total of 38 volatile compounds (VOCs) were identified in the meat from SanFen and WuTou donkeys, two lines of Dezhou donkeys. Notably, the ketone and alcohol content of SanFen donkey meat was significantly higher than that of WuTou donkey meat, while the content of aldehydes showed the opposite trend (33).

In summary, the quality of meat from different donkey breeds differs due to variations in carcass quality, fatty acid content, flavor compound levels, and other factors (Table 3). Therefore, cross-breeding can be used to combine excellent meat traits and thus improve the quality of donkey meat.

Table 3

Table 3. Comparison of quality parameters between different varieties of donkey meat (21, 32, 33).

4 Effect of genetics on donkey meat quality

Gene regulation plays a key role in determining meat quality, and genetics can lead to variations in meat quality traits and the quality of meat products (34–37). The LTBP2 gene polymorphism is significantly correlated with the body size and carcass traits of Dezhou donkeys and has potential applications as a molecular marker to improve the production performance of donkeys (38). HOXC8 is an important gene affecting the number of multiple vertebrae and carcass weight in Dezhou donkeys, and g.15179224C>T and g.15179674G>A may be potential genetic markers for screening and breeding new high-quality and high-yield donkey varieties (39). In a study investigating the relationship between the NKX 1–2 gene and donkey meat quality, NKX 1–2 was identified as a candidate gene for breeding Dezhou donkeys for meat, and the g.54704925 A>G locus emerged as a marker locus for the selection and breeding of good-quality animals (40). These findings show that gene polymorphisms can affect the quality of donkey meat.

Omics technology, including transcriptomics, proteomic, genomic, and metabolomics, is an important tool for studying the biological characteristics of living organisms (41, 42). In a transcriptomic study of donkey meat, RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) was employed to identify the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between animals with a high and low IMF content in the longissimus dorsi muscle (LDM). In total, 887 genes were identified, of which 167 DEGs were enriched in multiple biological processes and pathways related to adipocyte differentiation, lipid synthesis, and neutral lipid metabolism (43). A study using RNA-seq to identify important genes in Dezhou donkey muscles revealed that the DEGs were mainly involved in bioregulatory and metabolic processes in gluteus and longissimus dorsi meat. Additionally, variations in meat tenderness were related to muscle fiber type and glucose metabolism, which were linked to DEGs such as MYH1, MYH7, TNNC1, TNNI3, TPM3, ALDOA, ENO3, and PGK1 (44). Meanwhile, a proteomic investigation into donkey meat traits revealed that the most important pathways contributing to meat quality differences between the semitendinosus (ST) and the longissimus thoracis (LT) muscles were the GnRH and MAPK pathways. Meanwhile, the pathways of fat digestion and absorption and the regulation of the actin cytoskeleton were found to affect differences in meat quality between the gluteus maximus (GM) and LT muscles (45). A lipidomics and volatomics study of donkey meat found that as the IMF content of donkey meat increased, the content of MUFA (especially oleic acid) also increased significantly, while that of SFA decreased significantly (46).

Increased genetic diversity within breeds may lead to improvements in the quality and yield of donkey meat, as more genetic variation offers more options for breeding individual animals with superior meat quality. With inter-breed genetic diversity, new genetic information can be introduced through mating to potentially improve meat quality and prevent the accumulation of genetic defects. In general, genetic diversity is a significant factor affecting the quality of donkey meat. Through scientific breeding and management measures, genetic diversity can be leveraged to improve the quality and yield of donkey meat and meet the demand for high-quality donkey meat. However, the genetic regulation of meat quality is complicated. Most meat quality traits are quantitative traits and are controlled by multiple genes. Although several candidate genes related to the quality of donkey meat have been screened via multi-omics methods, the molecular mechanisms governing meat quality warrant further elucidation.

5 Effect of gender on donkey meat quality

The effect of sex on the quality of donkey meat is not obvious and is primarily mediated through sex-related differences in carcass weight. One study investigated the effects of sex on the weight, physicochemical properties, nutritional value, and sensory characteristics of meat from 15-month-old donkeys. This study found that sex had a significant effect on the fatty acid content of the longissimus dorsi. Additionally, the slaughter weight in the male group was slightly higher than that in the female group. However, no significant sex-related differences in carcass measurements, meat chemical composition, meat color, meat texture, amino acid content, and sensory characteristics were observed (47). These results were consistent with reports on meat quality in “Galician Mountain” foals (GMF) (48). Among Catalan crossbreed donkeys, males were found to have a higher carcass weight and subcutaneous fat content than females (49). Collectively, these studies show that sex affects the fat content of donkey meat, with male donkeys having a slightly higher overall fat content than female donkeys.

6 Effect of age on donkey meat quality

Age can significantly affect the quality of donkey meat. In one study on foals who were naturally suckled on maternal milk (NS), the foals aged 12 months and 18 months showed differences in the moisture, protein, IMF, and fatty acid content of meat (50). In Martina Franca (MF) donkeys, 12-month-old foals were found to have a higher carcass weight, dressing percentage, and muscle glycogen content than 8-month-old foals. Meanwhile, the meat from 8-month-old donkeys showed lower shear force values (51). Another study on GMF revealed significant differences in carcass weight, meat quality (chemical composition, color characteristics, and texture characteristics), and nutritional value (fatty acid and amino acid composition) between the meat from 8- and 11-month-old foals. Notably, the carcass weight of foals increased with age. However, meat from 8-month-old foals had higher cholesterol and color luminosity values than meat from 11-month-old foals. In terms of fatty acid content, 8-month-old foals had the highest n-3 fatty acid content (10.99%) and the lowest n-6 fatty acid content (11.76%) (52).

To further understand the effects of age on donkey meat quality, we integrated the results of these three previous studies (Table 4). Accordingly, we inferred that as the age of donkeys increases, the moisture content of donkey meat gradually decreases while the protein and IMF content gradually increases. This is consistent with the age-related changes in the quality of pork and beef (53, 54). Additionally, the content of essential AA is higher than that of non-essential AA in donkey meat, although the contents of SFA, MUFA, and PUFA appear to be comparable across different ages. Importantly, as the age increases, the shear force of donkey meat increases, thereby increasing its toughness.

Table 4

Table 4. Effects of age on quality of donkey meat (50–52).

7 Effect of muscle type on donkey meat quality

In donkeys, different muscles exhibit great differences in fatty acid, IMF, and collagen content. In a study on Dezhou donkeys, the IMF content of the LDM was found to be higher than that of the rump muscle (RM) and hamstring muscle group (HM). Notably, triglycerides (TG) rich in SFA and MUFA accounted for a majority of the IMF in the meat from these donkeys (55). Polidori and Vincenzetti (56) slaughtered 10 entire crossbred donkeys (EC) and found that the content of fat and PUFA in the semimembranosus (SM) muscle was significantly higher than that in the ST muscle, while the collagen content was significantly lower in the SM muscle.

Similarly, differences in VOCs content and tenderness have also been observed among different muscles. Previously, headspace-gas chromatography-ion migration spectrometry combined with stoichiometric analysis was used to study the VOCs in the LDM, GM, and biceps femoris (BF) muscles of Dezhou SanFen donkeys. The findings showed that the levels of benzaldehyde, 2-heptanone, 3-methylbutanal, 2-butanone, and 2-butanone-D were significantly higher in the LD and GM muscles than in the BF muscle, whereas nonanal showed the opposite trend (57). In a study on the physicochemical properties of different cuts of meat from Dezhou black donkeys, the shear force and hardness of LD and BF meat were found to be significantly lower than those of GM meat. Meanwhile, the contents of IMF and MUFA in the LD muscle were significantly higher than those in the GM and BF muscles, while the contents of PUFA showed an inverse trend (58).

Our meta-analysis of these above studies (Table 5) indicated that the IMF content of the LDM was the highest among Dezhou donkeys, suggesting that the LDM of donkeys has a good fat-storage capacity. Compared with other types of muscles, the LDM had a relatively low shear force and hardness, while these indexes were the highest in the GM muscle. This may be because the GM muscle is employed frequently during exercise, increasing the muscle fibers in this muscle. As a result, the shear force of the GM muscle is high, which decreases its tenderness. Notably, the LDM of Dezhou donkeys had the highest content of SFA and MUFA and the lowest content of PUFA, which are easily oxidized (59, 60). Therefore, overall, the LDM appeared to show a high IMF content, tenderness, and antioxidant capacity and was found to be the most suitable part of Dezhou donkey meat for consumption. In EC donkeys, the ST and SM muscles exhibited significant differences in the concentration of fatty acids and collagen, which indicated that there are significant differences in the quality of donkey meat obtained from different muscle types. Therefore, different cuts of donkey meat can be sold and utilized to improve the economic value and use efficiency of donkey meat.

Table 5

Table 5. Quality of donkey meat from different muscles (55–58).

8 Effect of feeding regimen on donkey meat quality

The nutrients absorbed by animals from the feed are used for their own maintenance, growth, lactation, and other physiological processes. The feeding regimen mainly includes the feeding method and the type of diet. These factors complement each other and have various effects on the quality of donkey meat.

8.1 Feeding method

The primary feeding methods for donkeys include centralized feeding in the shed, grazing and free feeding, and suckling. Numerous studies have shown that the feeding method can affect meat quality in pigs, cattle, sheep, chickens, and other animals (61–64). In donkeys, housed feeding and free-range grazing can have varying effects on meat quality. In a previous study, 24 hybrid male donkey foals were reared under an intensive or extensive feeding system. This study showed that the average daily gain, carcass weight, and some meat quality parameters are significantly affected by the feeding system. Additionally, the IMF content, SFA content, and tenderness of donkey meat were higher if the animals were reared under intensive feeding. Meanwhile, the contents of protein and unsaturated fatty acids, including n-3 essential fatty acids, were significantly higher in meat from animals reared under the extensive feeding system (65). In GMF reared under free-extensive and semi-extensive feeding modes, the content of PUFA was significantly higher in the meat derived from the free-extensive production group, while the content of MUFA was significantly higher in the meat derived from the semi-extensive production group (66). These findings suggest that intensive feeding is more appropriate for fattening, while extensive free-range feeding enables the production of lean meat with a higher protein content.

Natural suckling and artificial suckling can also have different effects on the quality of donkey meat. In studying the effects of different suckling methods on the quality of MF donkey meat, De Palo et al. (50) found that meat from artificially suckled donkeys had a higher IMF and protein concentration. Moreover, the meat from naturally suckled donkeys was darker and redder than that from artificially suckled donkeys. Two other studies by De Palo et al. (67, 68) found that artificial suckling regimes could improve the growth rate of donkey foals, especially during the first 6 months of life, resulting in a significant increase in weekly gain, final live weight, and carcass weight. Additionally, the type of suckling also affected lipid peroxidation patterns. These results indicate that from a nutritional perspective, the contents of protein and IMF are better in meat from artificially suckled donkeys. However, in terms of appearance, meat from naturally suckled donkeys appears to be superior.

8.2 Diet type

The type of diet mainly affects meat quality by influencing the intake and absorption of nutrients, which are essential for meeting the physiological needs of animals. Several studies have shown that the dietary levels of different nutrients have important effects on meat quality (69–72). For donkeys, the effect of diet on meat quality is mainly through the influence of carcass weight and daily gain. In a study of Dezhou donkeys, the average weight gain, body circumference, and carcass percentage were found to be significantly higher in the 1.50 and 1.25% concentrate feed groups than in the 1.00% concentrate feed group. Based on various basic indicators, this study concluded that 1.25% concentrate feed was optimal for Dezhou donkeys (73). In another study, 36 Dezhou donkeys were divided into two groups and reared on a low-energy (LE) diet and a high-energy (HE) diet. Notably, the average daily feed intake of HE diet (4,262 g/ day) was lower than that of LE diet (4,337 g/ day), but the average daily gain (797 g/ day) was significantly higher than that of LE diet (706 g/day). This indicated that the feed conversion ratio in HE group (0.19) was significantly higher than that in LE group (0.16) (74). Additionally, the addition of yeast polysaccharide to the diet of Dezhou donkeys was shown to increase the average feed intake from 7.96 to 8.09% and the average daily gain from 0.32 kg/d to 0.37 kg/d, yielding positive effects (75).

9 Effect of storage and processing conditions on donkey meat quality

Meat aging is a natural process that occurs during storage and involves gradual changes in the contents of moisture, protein, fat, and other substances. One common contributor to the aging of meat is oxidation (76, 77). In one study, at 1, 8, and 15 days after slaughter, the tenderness of donkey meat and its content of PUFA and VOCs were found to change significantly as storage was prolonged (78), consistent with the research reported by Marino et al. (79). Meanwhile, in another study, the effects of different storage periods (1, 6, and 14 days) on the quality of meat from 10 MF donkeys were studied via proteomic methods. The findings indicated that with the increase in the myofibrillar fracture index during the storage process, the shear force, hardness, stickiness, and chewability of donkey meat gradually decrease. These studies collectively show that the quality of donkey meat is susceptible to deterioration during storage due to aging. In order to minimize the adverse effects of aging, it is essential to identify appropriate storage and processing conditions for donkey meat (80). A study examining the effect of low-voltage electrical stimulation on the quality of post-slaughter donkey meat discovered that electrical stimulation can induce a significant pH decline in donkey meat within 6 h of slaughter. Further, it revealed that electrical stimulation during the aging process can significantly reduce the shear force and increase the L* value of donkey meat (81). A volatile oil nanoemulsion containing ε-polylysine was found to preserve the freshness of refrigerated donkey meat by maintaining a stable pH during storage, reducing color changes, and delaying the decline of the elasticity and cohesiveness of refrigerated donkey meat (82). Meanwhile, the dry-curing (cooling, salting, air-drying, fermenting, and aging) of donkey meat was reported to significantly reduce its moisture content while increasing the contents of PUFA and VOCs such as aldehydes and esters (83). Hence, during storage, different methods can be used to process donkey meat, including the use of low-voltage electrical stimulation, which can improve its brightness and tenderness; the addition of a nano-emulsion, which can maintain its freshness; and dry-curing, which can improve its flavor.

10 Conclusion

Donkey meat is rich in protein and amino acids and low in fat. After understanding the advantages of donkey meat, consumers can reap the health benefits of this flavorful meat. Meat quality is a collective reflection of the physicochemical characteristics of muscle tissues and is affected by a range of factors. The quality of donkey meat is also determined by various factors, including the characteristics of the animal itself, especially the breed, sex, and age. Understanding the influence of genetic characteristics on donkey meat quality can help producers develop more effective reproductive strategies and select individuals with excellent meat quality genes for breeding, so as to improve the meat quality standard. The sensory properties of meat (tenderness, flavor, etc.) mainly depend on the muscle type and how the meat is stored and processed. With regard to storage and processing, producers can improve processing techniques and use electrical stimulation or dry-curing methods to retain the nutrients and flavor compounds of donkey meat and ensure product quality and taste. It is worth mentioning that the quality of donkey meat can also be affected by the feeding methods and diet used for rearing. Producers can adjust feed formulations and management practices to increase the essential fatty acid content of donkey meat and further improve IMF levels, thereby enhancing meat quality and taste. Notably, gene regulation also plays a key role in determining meat quality, and differences in the molecular profiles and pathways of donkey meat can lead to quality variations. However, because the influence of genetics is extremely complex, more studies are required to fully explore the influence of genetic factors on meat quality. In this review, the factors influencing donkey quality were reviewed in order to provide new ideas for producing high-quality meat. Based on the present review, policymakers can formulate relevant standards and guidelines for donkey meat production and sales and promote the development of the donkey meat industry.

Author contributions

WZ: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. MZ: Writing – review & editing. YS: Resources, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. SL: Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.

Funding

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This research was funded by Donkey Innovation Team of Shandong Modern Agricultural Industry Technology System (Grant No. SDAIT-27); Shandong Province Natural Science Foundation (Grant No. ZR2022QC091); Accurate Identification Project of livestock and poultry germplasm resources of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs “Phenotypic identification of donkey skin and meat traits” (Grant No. 19211183); “Systematic Evaluation and Screening of donkey germplasm Resources in the Yellow River Basin,” Dongying Vocational College (Grant No. 2022DZ01); Major Agricultural Application Technology Innovation Projects of Shandong Province (Grant No. SD2019 XM 008).

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank all the reviewers who participated in the review and MJ Editor (www.mjeditor.com) for its linguistic assistance during the preparation of this manuscript.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

References

1. Seyiti, S, and Kelimu, A. Donkey industry in China: current aspects, suggestions and future challenges. J Equine Vet. (2021) 102:103642. doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2021.103642

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

2. Wang, Y, Hua, X, Shi, X, and Wang, C. Origin, evolution, and research development of donkeys. Genes. (2022) 13:945. doi: 10.3390/genes13111945

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

3. Xu, C, Markova, M, Seebeck, N, Loft, A, Hornemann, S, Gantert, T, et al. High-protein diet more effectively reduces hepatic fat than low-protein diet despite lower autophagy and Fgf21 levels. Liver Int. (2020) 40:2982–97. doi: 10.1111/liv.14596

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

4. Whitnall, T, and Pitts, N. Global trends in meat consumption. Agric Commod. (2019) 9:96–9.

Google Scholar

5. Lupenko, YO, Kopytets, NH, and Voloshyn, V. Structural changes in the meat market In: BIO Web of Conferences. Les Ulis: EDP Sciences (2021)

Google Scholar

6. Cao, QL, Pukazhenthi, BS, Bapodra, P, Lowe, S, and Bhatnagar, YV. Equid adaptations to cold environments In: Prins HHT and Gordon IJ, editors. The equids: A suite of splendid species. Berlin: Springer (2023). 209–46.

Google Scholar

7. Zeng, L, Liu, HQ, Tu, XL, Ji, CM, Gou, X, Esmailizadeh, A, et al. Genomes reveal selective sweeps in kiang and donkey for high-altitude adaptation. Zool Res. (2021) 42:450–60. doi: 10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2021.095

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

8. Zakari, FO, Ayo, JO, Kawu, MU, and Rekwot, I. The effect of season and meteorological stress factors on Behavioural responses and activities of donkeys (Equus Asinus)–a review. Ann Anim Sci. (2015) 15:307–21. doi: 10.1515/aoas-2015-0013

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

9. Polidori, P, Vincenzetti, S, Pucciarelli, S, and Polzonetti, V. Comparison of carcass and meat quality obtained from mule and donkey. Animals. (2020) 10:1620. doi: 10.3390/ani10091620

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

10. Hassan, ZM, Manyelo, TG, Nemukondeni, N, Sebola, AN, Selaledi, L, and Mabelebele, M. The possibility of including donkey meat and Milk in the food chain: A southern African scenario. Animals. (2022) 12:1073. doi: 10.3390/ani12091073

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

11. Sun, Y, Wang, Y, Li, Y, Li, H, Wang, C, and Zhang, Q. Comparative transcriptome and proteome analyses of the longissimus Dorsi muscle for explaining the difference between donkey meat and other meats. Anim Biotechnol. (2023) 34:3085–98. doi: 10.1080/10495398.2022.2134883

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

12. Polidori, P, Vincenzetti, S, Cavallucci, C, and Beghelli, D. Quality of donkey meat and carcass characteristics. Meat Sci. (2008) 80:1222–4. doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2008.05.027

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

13. Yu, T, Tian, X, Li, D, He, Y, Yang, P, Cheng, Y, et al. Transcriptome, proteome and metabolome analysis provide insights on fat deposition and meat quality in pig. Food Res Int. (2023) 166:112550. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2023.112550

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

14. Tan, X, He, Y, Qin, Y, Yan, Z, Chen, J, Zhao, R, et al. Comparative analysis of differentially abundant proteins between high and low intramuscular fat content groups in donkeys. Front Vet Sci. (2022) 9:951168. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2022.951168

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

15. Li, B, Feng, C, Zhu, S, Zhang, J, Irwin, DM, Zhang, X, et al. Identification of candidate circular Rnas underlying intramuscular fat content in the donkey. Front Genet. (2020) 11:587559. doi: 10.3389/fgene.2020.587559

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

16. de Carvalho, C, and Caramujo, MJ. The various roles of fatty acids. Molecules. (2018) 23. doi: 10.3390/molecules23102583

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

17. Marino, R, Albenzio, M, Della Malva, A, Muscio, A, and Sevi, A. Nutritional properties and consumer evaluation of donkey bresaola and salami: comparison with conventional products. Meat Sci. (2015) 101:19–24. doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2014.11.001

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

18. Polidori, P, and Vincenzetti, S. (2017). Quality and nutritional characteristics of donkey meat. Meat and Meat Processing. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers, Inc. p. 155–176.

Google Scholar

19. Ivanković, A, Šubara, G, Bittante, G, Šuran, E, Amalfitano, N, Aladrović, J, et al. Potential of endangered local donkey breeds in meat and Milk production. Animals. (2023) 13:2146. doi: 10.3390/ani13132146

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

20. Polidori, P, Cavallucci, C, Beghelli, D, and Vincenzetti, S. Physical and chemical characteristics of donkey meat from Martina Franca breed. Meat Sci. (2009) 82:469–71. doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2009.03.001

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

21. Aroua, M, Haj Koubaier, H, Rekik, C, Fatica, A, Ben Said, S, Malek, A, et al. Comparative study of carcass characteristics and meat quality of local Mediterranean donkey breeds. Food Secur. (2024) 13. doi: 10.3390/foods13060942

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

22. Fehily, AM, Pickering, JE, Yarnell, JW, and Elwood, PC. Dietary indices of Atherogenicity and Thrombogenicity and Ischaemic heart disease risk: the Caerphilly prospective study. Br J Nutr. (1994) 71:249–57. doi: 10.1079/bjn19940131

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

23. Chen, S, Bobe, G, Zimmerman, S, Hammond, EG, Luhman, CM, Boylston, TD, et al. Physical and sensory properties of dairy products from cows with various Milk fatty acid compositions. J Agric Food Chem. (2004) 52:3422–8. doi: 10.1021/jf035193z

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

24. Ferrara, D, Cescon, M, Giacoppo, G, Costa, V, Purcaro, G, Spadafora, ND, et al. Composition and nutritional values of fatty acids in marine organisms by one-step microwave-assisted extraction/derivatization and comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-flame ionization detector. J Chromatogr B Anal Technol Biomed Life Sci. (2024) 1236:124074. doi: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2024.124074

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

25. Khan, MI, Jo, C, and Tariq, MR. Meat flavor precursors and factors influencing flavor precursors--a systematic review. Meat Sci. (2015) 110:278–84. doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2015.08.002

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

26. Fu, Y, Cao, S, Yang, L, and Li, Z. Flavor formation based on lipid in meat and meat products: A review. J Food Biochem. (2022) 46:e14439. doi: 10.1111/jfbc.14439

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

27. Li, X, Amadou, I, Zhou, GY, Qian, LY, Zhang, JL, Wang, DL, et al. Flavor components comparison between the neck meat of donkey, swine, bovine, and sheep. Food Sci Anim Resour. (2020) 40:527–40. doi: 10.5851/kosfa.2020.e30

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

28. Bunevski, G, Nikitović, J, Marjan, J, Mergedush, A, Prishenk, J, Trajkovski, B, et al. Defining breed standards and breeding goals for domestic donkey. Acta Agric Serbica. (2018) 23:213–21. doi: 10.5937/AASer1846213B

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

29. Shen, J, Yu, J, Dai, X, Li, M, Wang, G, Chen, N, et al. Genomic analyses reveal distinct genetic architectures and selective pressures in Chinese donkeys. J Genet Genom. (2021) 48:737–45. doi: 10.1016/j.jgg.2021.05.012

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

30. Zeng, L, Dang, R, Dong, H, Li, F, Chen, H, and Lei, C. Genetic diversity and relationships of Chinese donkeys using microsatellite markers. Arch Anim Breed. (2019) 62:181–7. doi: 10.5194/aab-62-181-2019

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

31. Maswana, M, Mugwabana, TJ, and Tyasi, TL. Morphological differentiation among donkey breeds: A review. Pakistan J Zool. (2022) 55:603. doi: 10.17582/journal.pjz/20210607200603

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

32. Juárez, M, Polvillo, O, Gómez, MD, Alcalde, MJ, Romero, F, and Valera, M. Breed effect on carcass and meat quality of foals slaughtered at 24months of age. Meat Sci. (2009) 83:224–8. doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2009.04.022

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

33. Man, L, Ren, W, Sun, M, Du, Y, Chen, H, Qin, H, et al. Characterization of donkey-meat flavor profiles by Gc-Ims and multivariate analysis. Front Nutr. (2023) 10:1079799. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2023.1079799

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

34. Ryu, YC, Lee, EA, Chai, HH, Park, JE, and Kim, JM. Effects of a novel P.A41p mutation in the swine myogenic factor 5(Myf5) gene on protein stabilizing, muscle Fiber characteristics and meat quality. Korean J Food Sci Anim Resour. (2018) 38:711–7. doi: 10.5851/kosfa.2018.e9

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

35. Chacko Kaitholil, SR, Mooney, MH, Aubry, A, Rezwan, F, and Shirali, M. Insights into the influence of diet and genetics on feed efficiency and meat production in sheep. Anim Genet. (2024) 55:20–46. doi: 10.1111/age.13383

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

36. Wu, F, Chen, Z, Zhang, Z, Wang, Z, Zhang, Z, Wang, Q, et al. The role of Socs3 in regulating meat quality in Jinhua pigs. Int J Mol Sci. (2023) 24:10593. doi: 10.3390/ijms241310593

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

37. Leal-Gutiérrez, JD, Elzo, MA, and Mateescu, RG. Identification of Eqtls and Sqtls associated with meat quality in beef. BMC Genomics. (2020) 21:104. doi: 10.1186/s12864-020-6520-5

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

38. Liu, Z, Wang, T, Shi, X, Wang, X, Ren, W, Huang, B, et al. Identification of Ltbp2 gene polymorphisms and their association with thoracolumbar vertebrae number, body size, and carcass traits in Dezhou donkeys. Front Genet. (2022) 13:969959. doi: 10.3389/fgene.2022.969959

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

39. Shi, X, Li, Y, Wang, T, Ren, W, Huang, B, Wang, X, et al. Association of Hoxc8 genetic polymorphisms with multi-vertebral number and carcass weight in Dezhou donkey. Genes. (2022) 13:2175. doi: 10.3390/genes13112175

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

40. Wang, X, Wang, T, Liang, H, Wang, L, Akhtar, F, Shi, X, et al. A novel Snp in Nkx1-2 gene is associated with carcass traits in Dezhou donkey. BMC Genom Data. (2023) 24:41. doi: 10.1186/s12863-023-01145-2

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

41. Hrdlickova, R, Toloue, M, and Tian, B. Rna-Seq methods for transcriptome analysis. Wiley Interdiscipl Rev RNA. (2017) 8:1364. doi: 10.1002/wrna.1364

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

42. Suhre, K, McCarthy, MI, and Schwenk, JM. Genetics meets proteomics: perspectives for large population-based studies. Nat Rev Genet. (2021) 22:19–37. doi: 10.1038/s41576-020-0268-2

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

43. Li, W, Qiu, L, Guan, J, Sun, Y, Zhao, J, and Du, M. Comparative transcriptome analysis of longissimus Dorsi tissues with different intramuscular fat contents from Guangling donkeys. BMC Genomics. (2022) 23:644. doi: 10.1186/s12864-022-08857-2

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

44. Chai, W, Qu, H, Ma, Q, Zhu, M, Li, M, Zhan, Y, et al. Rna-Seq analysis identifies differentially expressed gene in different types of donkey skeletal muscles. Anim Biotechnol. (2023) 34:1786–95. doi: 10.1080/10495398.2022.2050920

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

45. Chai, WQ, Xu, J, Qu, HL, Ma, QG, Zhu, MX, Li, MM, et al. Differential proteomic analysis to identify potential biomarkers associated with quality traits of Dezhou donkey meat using a data-independent acquisition (Dia) strategy. Lwt-Food Sci Technol. (2022):166. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2022.113792

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

46. Ma, Q, Kou, X, Yang, Y, Yue, Y, Xing, W, Feng, X, et al. Comparison of lipids and volatile compounds in Dezhou donkey meat with high and low intramuscular fat content. Food Secur. (2023) 12:269. doi: 10.3390/foods12173269

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

47. Lorenzo, JM, Sarriés, MV, and Franco, D. Sex effect on meat quality and carcass traits of foals slaughtered at 15 months of age. Animal. (2013) 7:1199–207. doi: 10.1017/s1751731113000189

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

48. Franco, D, Rodríguez, E, Purriños, L, Crecente, S, Bermúdez, R, and Lorenzo, JM. Meat quality of "Galician Mountain" foals breed. Effect of sex, slaughter age and livestock production system. Meat Sci. (2011) 88:292–8. doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2011.01.004

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

49. Hernández-Briano, P, Ramírez-Lozano, RG, Carrillo-Muro, O, López-Carlos, MA, Méndez-Llorente, F, and Aguilera-Soto, JI. Gender and live weight on carcass and meat characteristics of donkeys. Cienc Rural. (2018) 48:889. doi: 10.1590/0103-8478cr20170889

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

50. De Palo, P, Tateo, A, Maggiolino, A, Marino, R, Ceci, E, Nisi, A, et al. Martina Franca donkey meat quality: influence of slaughter age and suckling technique. Meat Sci. (2017) 134:128–34. doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2017.07.025

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

51. Polidori, P, Pucciarelli, S, Ariani, A, Polzonetti, V, and Vincenzetti, S. A comparison of the carcass and meat quality of Martina Franca donkey foals aged 8 or 12 months. Meat Sci. (2015) 106:6–10. doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2015.03.018

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

52. Domínguez, R, Crecente, S, Borrajo, P, Agregán, R, and Lorenzo, JM. Effect of slaughter age on foal carcass traits and meat quality. Animal. (2015) 9:1713–20. doi: 10.1017/s1751731115000671

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

53. Guo, Z, Chen, X, Chen, D, Li, M, Yin, J, Yu, B, et al. Effects of slaughter age on carcass traits and meat quality of crossbred (Duroc × landrace × Yorkshire) finishing pigs. Anim Biotechnol. (2022) 33:339–45. doi: 10.1080/10495398.2021.1916512

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

54. Li, JB, Sun, A, Long, Y, He, F, Huang, C, Li, S, et al. Effects of age on production performance and meat quality of Xiangxi cattle. Pak J Agric Sci. (2020) 57:1437–45. doi: 10.21162/PAKJAS/20.800

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

55. Li, M, Zhu, M, Chai, W, Wang, Y, Fan, D, Lv, M, et al. Determination of lipid profiles of Dezhou donkey meat using an Lc-Ms-based Lipidomics method. J Food Sci. (2021) 86:4511–21. doi: 10.1111/1750-3841.15917

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

56. Polidori, P, and Vincenzetti, S. Meat quality in donkey foals. Italian J. Food Sci. (2013) 25:390–3.

Google Scholar

57. Li, M, Sun, M, Ren, W, Man, L, Chai, W, Liu, G, et al. Characterization of volatile compounds in donkey meat by gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry (Gc-Ims) combined with Chemometrics. Food Sci Anim Resour. (2024) 44:165–77. doi: 10.5851/kosfa.2023.e67

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

58. Li, MM, Zhang, DM, Chai, WQ, Zhu, MX, Wang, YH, Liu, YX, et al. Chemical and physical properties of meat from Dezhou black donkey. Food Sci Technol Res. (2022) 28:87–94. doi: 10.3136/fstr.FSTR-D-21-00149

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

59. Calder, PC . Functional roles of fatty acids and their effects on human health. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. (2015) 39:18s–32s. doi: 10.1177/0148607115595980

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

60. Simopoulos, AP . The importance of the ratio of Omega-6/Omega-3 essential fatty acids. Biomed Pharmacother. (2002) 56:365–79. doi: 10.1016/s0753-3322(02)00253-6

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

61. Dostálová, A, Svitáková, A, Bureš, D, Vališ, L, and Volek, Z. Effect of an outdoor access system on the growth performance, carcass characteristics, and longissimus Lumborum muscle meat quality of the Prestice black-pied pig breed. Animals. (2020) 10:1244. doi: 10.3390/ani10081244

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

62. Nogalski, Z, Pogorzelska-Przybyłek, P, Sobczuk-Szul, M, and Modzelewska-Kapituła, M. Effects of rearing system and fattening intensity on the chemical composition, physicochemical properties and sensory attributes of meat from young crossbred (Holstein-Friesian × Hereford) bulls. Animals. (2022) 12:933. doi: 10.3390/ani12070933

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

63. Chai, J, Diao, Q, Zhao, J, Wang, H, Deng, K, Qi, M, et al. Effects of rearing system on meat quality, fatty acid and amino acid profiles of Hu lambs. Anim Sci J. (2018) 89:1178–86. doi: 10.1111/asj.13013

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

64. Zhang, S, Zhang, J, Cao, C, Cai, Y, Li, Y, Song, Y, et al. Effects of different rearing systems on Lueyang black-bone chickens: meat quality, amino acid composition, and breast muscle transcriptome. Genes. (2022) 13:1898. doi: 10.3390/genes13101898

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

65. Polidori, P, Cammertoni, N, Santini, G, Klimanova, Y, Zhang, JJ, and Vincenzetti, S. Effects of donkeys rearing system on performance indices, carcass, and meat quality. Food Secur. (2021) 10:1898. doi: 10.3390/foods10123119

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

66. Lorenzo, JM, Fuciños, C, Purriños, L, and Franco, D. Intramuscular fatty acid composition of "Galician Mountain" foals breed. Effect of sex, slaughtered age and livestock production system. Meat Sci. (2010) 86:825–31. doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2010.07.004

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

67. De Palo, P, Maggiolino, A, Milella, P, Centoducati, N, Papaleo, A, and Tateo, A. Artificial suckling in Martina Franca donkey foals: effect on in vivo performances and carcass composition. Trop Anim Health Prod. (2016) 48:167–73. doi: 10.1007/s11250-015-0940-2

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

68. De Palo, P, Maggiolino, A, Albenzio, M, Casalino, E, Neglia, G, Centoducati, G, et al. Survey of biochemical and oxidative profile in donkey foals suckled with one natural and one semi-artificial technique. PLoS One. (2018) 13:e0198774. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0198774

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

69. Wang, D, Chen, G, Chai, M, Shi, C, Geng, Y, Che, Y, et al. Effects of dietary protein levels on production performance, meat quality and flavor of fattening pigs. Front Nutr. (2022) 9:910519. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2022.910519

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

70. Du, M, Yang, C, Liang, Z, Zhang, J, Yang, Y, Ahmad, AA, et al. Dietary energy levels affect carbohydrate metabolism-related Bacteria and improve meat quality in the longissimus Thoracis muscle of yak (Bos Grunniens). Front Vet Sci. (2021) 8:718036. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2021.718036

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

71. Wang, Y, Shelby, S, Apple, J, Coffey, K, Pohlman, F, and Huang, Y. Effects of two dietary crude protein levels on finishing performance, meat quality, and gene expression of market lambs. Anim Sci J. (2021) 92:e13641. doi: 10.1111/asj.13641

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

72. Wei, J, Li, L, Peng, Y, Luo, J, Chen, T, Xi, Q, et al. The effects of optimal dietary vitamin D(3) on growth and carcass performance, tibia traits, meat quality, and intestinal morphology of Chinese yellow-feathered broiler chickens. Animals. (2024) 14:920. doi: 10.3390/ani14060920

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

73. Liu, G, Bou, G, Wang, X, Xing, J, Qu, H, Zhao, Y, et al. Effects of concentrated feeds on growth performance, blood profiles and carcass characteristics of Dezhou donkeys. J Anim Plant Sci. (2020) 30:811–9. doi: 10.36899/JAPS.2020.4.0095

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

74. Zhang, C, Zhang, C, Wang, Y, Du, M, Zhang, G, and Lee, Y. Dietary energy level impacts the performance of donkeys by manipulating the gut microbiome and metabolome. Front Vet Sci. (2021) 8:694357. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2021.694357

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

75. Huang, B, Khan, MZ, Chen, Y, Liang, H, Kou, X, Wang, X, et al. Yeast polysaccharide supplementation: impact on lactation, growth, immunity, and gut microbiota in Dezhou donkeys. Front Microbiol. (2023) 14:1289371. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1289371

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

76. Contini, C, Álvarez, R, O'Sullivan, M, Dowling, DP, Gargan, S, and Monahan, FJ. Effect of an active packaging with Citrus extract on lipid oxidation and sensory quality of cooked Turkey meat. Meat Sci. (2014) 96:1171–6. doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2013.11.007

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

77. Falowo, AB, Fayemi, PO, and Muchenje, V. Natural antioxidants against lipid-protein oxidative deterioration in meat and meat products: A review. Food Res Int. (2014) 64:171–81. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2014.06.022

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

78. Polidori, P, Santini, G, Klimanova, Y, Zhang, JJ, and Vincenzetti, S. Effects of ageing on donkey meat chemical composition, fatty acid profile and volatile compounds. Foods. (2022) 11:821. doi: 10.3390/foods11060821

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

79. Marino, R, Della Malva, A, Maggiolino, A, De Palo, P, d'Angelo, F, Lorenzo, JM, et al. Nutritional profile of donkey and horse meat: effect of muscle and aging time. Animals. (2022) 12:746. doi: 10.3390/ani12060746

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

80. Della Malva, A, Gagaoua, M, Santillo, A, De Palo, P, Sevi, A, and Albenzio, M. First insights about the underlying mechanisms of Martina Franca donkey meat tenderization during aging: A proteomic approach. Meat Sci. (2022) 193:108925. doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2022.108925

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

81. Polidori, P, Ariani, A, Micozzi, D, and Vincenzetti, S. The effects of low voltage electrical stimulation on donkey meat. Meat Sci. (2016) 119:160–4. doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2016.05.008

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

82. Wei, ZX, Zhang, JJ, Zhang, HC, Ning, Z, Zhang, RY, Li, LJ, et al. Effect of Nanoemulsion loading a mixture of clove essential oil and Carboxymethyl chitosan-coated Ε-Polylysine on the preservation of donkey meat during refrigerated storage. J Food Process Preservat. (2021) 45:15733. doi: 10.1111/jfpp.15733

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

83. Zhang, J, Wei, Z, Zhang, H, Xie, L, Vincenzetti, S, Polidori, P, et al. Changes in the physical-chemical properties and volatile flavor components of dry-cured donkey leg during processing. Food Secur. (2022) 11. doi: 10.3390/foods11213542

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

84. Pereira, PM, and Vicente, AF. Meat nutritional composition and nutritive role in the human diet. Meat Sci. (2013) 93:586–92. doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2012.09.018

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

85. Paolo, P, Paola Di, G, and Silvia, V. Vitamins and minerals in raw and cooked donkey meat In: R Chhabi Lal, editor. Meat and nutrition. Rijeka: IntechOpen (2021)

Google Scholar