Victor Manuel Petrone-García
Inkar Castellanos-Huerta
Guillermo Tellez-Isaias- 1Departamento de Ciencias Pecuarias, Facultad de Estudios Superiores Cuautitlán UNAM, Cuautitlán Izcalli, Mexico
- 2Department of Poultry Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
Editorial on the Research Topic
High-impact respiratory RNA virus diseases
The text discusses the serious threat of high-impact “respiratory RNA virus” (RRV) infections to global health (1, 2). These viruses can spread rapidly, causing severe respiratory illnesses and significant socioeconomic burdens (3). The emergence and reemergence of these viruses continuously hinder public health preparedness and control measures (1). “RRVs” form a diverse group sharing genetic material of single and double-stranded RNA (4–6). They can lead to various respiratory disorders, from mild symptoms to life-threatening respiratory distress (5).
Notable examples of RRVs include canine distemper virus (CDV) (7) and Newcastle diseases virus (NDV) (8), Influenza virus (IV) (9), porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) (10), the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by SARS-CoV-2 (11, 12), and the less well-known African horse sickness virus (AHSV) (13) are some of the most notable high-impact RRVs (14). Past pandemics, like the IV in humans and animals (15, 16) and SARS in the twenty-first century highlighted the challenges of zoonotic transmission and controlling outbreaks (11). The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic demonstrates the relevance of these diseases (17–21) (Jarrah et al.). RRVs can have substantial economic consequences, including disruptions to global trade, tourism, and healthcare systems (22–24). The interconnectedness of global health security underscores the importance of international collaboration, data sharing, and robust surveillance systems to detect and respond to emerging viral threats (25).
RRVs have the potential to spread widely, causing severe respiratory illnesses and far-reaching consequences beyond health, including economic disruptions and impacts on global trade, tourism, and healthcare systems (26). The emergence and reemergence of these viruses continuously challenge public health measures (1). RRVs refer to a diverse group of viruses with RNA genetic material, typically with a protein coat or capsid, surrounding their genome (27), causing various respiratory disorders in human and animal populations. Some RRVs have an envelope derived from the host cell membrane (28). The RNA virus-genomic structure and replication strategies can vary, influencing their ability to infect and replicate within host cells (29). RRVs are characterized by high mutation rates, rapid replication cycles, and the ability to cause various clinical consequences (5, 25, 30). Their genetic structure allows for (+) sense or (–) sense RNA, leading to diverse viral populations (31–33). RRVs reflex a higher mutation rate, enabling them to adapt and evolve rapidly, evading host immune responses and developing resistance to antiviral drugs (25, 34–36). The epidemiology of RRVs varies based on factors such as transmission mode, viral stability, host range, and population susceptibility (19, 37, 38). Some RRVs exhibit seasonal patterns, while others cause sporadic outbreaks or persistent endemic infections (39). The transmission dynamics depend on the specific virus and can occur through respiratory droplets, direct contact, vector-borne transmission, or fecal-oral transmission (19).
Diagnosing RRV diseases involves various laboratory techniques, including molecular methods like polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (40–43) (Machado et al.), and serological tests to detect viral genetic material or antibodies (ELISA test) (44–48). Overall, understanding the characteristics, transmission, and diagnostic methods of RRVs is crucial for effectively combating these infections and improving global health preparedness. Some examples of RRVs are briefly described below:
a) SARS-CoV-2 has a single-stranded (+) sense RNA virus genome, which means it can serve as a messenger RNA (mRNA) for protein synthesis once it enters a host cell (9, 49). The genome structure includes regions encoding structural and non-structural proteins (50, 51). Its genome can undergo mutations, leading to the emergence of different variants that may impact transmissibility, virulence, and vaccine efficacy (52–54). Continuous monitoring of viral genomic sequences helps researchers understand the evolution and spread of the virus (18, 23, 55) (Padilla-Blanco et al.). Diagnosing in animals is crucial for understanding its impact on animal health and welfare, studying transmission dynamics, adopting a One Health approach that considers human, animal, and environmental health, and enhancing public health and epidemiological surveillance (56). Animals can become infected with SARS-CoV-2 through zoonotic transmission, and studying such cases provides valuable data for tracking the virus's spread and assessing its potential impact on human populations. Collaborative efforts between human health professionals and veterinary experts are essential for comprehensive disease surveillance, prevention, and control (18, 57).
b) PRRSV is a significant viral pathogen affecting pigs worldwide (58). It is an enveloped, single-stranded RNA virus, family Arteriviridae, genus Betaarterivirus (59), with a genome containing several ORFs encoding viral proteins, including structural and non-structural proteins (60–62). There are two major genotypes: PRRSV type 1 (PRRSV-1) and PRRSV type 2 (PRRSV-2) (63). PRRSV is characterized by causing reproductive failure, respiratory illness, and immunosuppression in pigs (64). Its genetic diversity challenges disease control and vaccine efficacy (65, 66). Recently a new type of active vaccine demonstrated superior results against the PRRSV (Trevisan et al.).
c) IV is an enveloped RRV of the Orthomyxoviridae family classified into four genera: Alphainfluenzavirus (influenza A virus, IAV), Betainfluenzavirus (influenza B virus, IBV), Gammainfluenzavirus (influenza C virus, ICV), and Deltainfluenzavirus (influenza D virus, IDV) (67–69). The viral genome comprises segments of single-stranded RNA, encoding structural and non-structural proteins (68, 70). The replication and transcription processes involve interactions between viral components and host cell machinery (71). Influenza viruses can cause seasonal flu outbreaks (Fujiwara et al.), occasionally leading to pandemics (15, 16).
d) NDV is an enveloped, single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the Avulavirus genus in the Paramyxoviridae family (72). It affects domestic poultry and wild bird species (72). NDV has a non-segmented RNA genome, and its replication and transcription processes involve interactions between the viral polymerase complex and viral RNA (73, 74). Vaccination is crucial for controlling NDV outbreaks (8).
e) CDV is a highly contagious viral disease affecting dogs and other Canidae family members (75, 76). It belongs to the Morbillivirus genus within the Paramyxoviridae family (77). The CDV genome is segmented RNA and encodes various structural and non-structural proteins (78). Vaccination is the most effective preventive measure against CDV (79, 80).
f) AHS, a member of the Orbivirus genus within the Reoviridae family (13, 81), has a segmented genome with 10 RNA segments, each encoding specific proteins (82, 83). The virus is primarily transmitted through insect vectors, and vaccination and vector control are essential for disease prevention (82). AHS can cause various clinical signs, varying from peracute to chronic (Adesola et al.). Research focuses on understanding the viral genome and developing effective control strategies (83).
The challenges of prevention, diagnosis, and treatment are examined, highlighting the necessity for continuous research, surveillance, and preparedness. To mitigate the effects of RRVs, it is essential to prioritize surveillance, prevention, diagnostics, and research efforts while fostering collaboration among scientists, healthcare professionals, and policymakers to enhance global preparedness for future outbreaks.
Author contributions
VP-G: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review and editing, Data curation, Methodology, Supervision. IC-H: Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review and editing, Software, Visualization. GT-I: Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing—review and editing, Project administration, Resources, Validation.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported in part by funds provided by USDA-NIFA, Sustainable Agriculture Systems, Grant No. 2019-69012-29905. Title of project: Empowering U.S. Broiler Production for Transformation and Sustainability USDA-NIFA (Sustainable Agriculture Systems): no. 2019-69012-29905.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
The author(s) declared that they were an editorial board member of Frontiers, at the time of submission. This had no impact on the peer review process and the final decision.
Publisher's note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
References
1. Tang JW, Lam TT, Zaraket H, Lipkin WI, Drews SJ, Hatchette TF, et al. Global epidemiology of non-influenza RNA respiratory viruses: data gaps and a growing need for surveillance. Lancet Infect Dis. (2017) 17:e320–6. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(17)30238-4
2. Carrasco-Hernandez R, Jácome R, López Vidal Y, Ponce de León S. Are RNA viruses candidate agents for the next global pandemic? A review. ILAR J. (2017) 58:343–58. doi: 10.1093/ilar/ilx026
3. Alvarez-Munoz S, Upegui-Porras N, Gomez AP. Ramirez-Nieto G. Key factors that enable the pandemic potential of RNA viruses and inter-species transmission: a systematic review. Viruses. (2021) 13:537. doi: 10.3390/v13040537
4. Chepur S, Pluzhnikov N, Chubar O, Bakulina L, Litvinenko I, Makarov V, et al. Respiratory RNA viruses: how to be prepared for an encounter with new pandemic virus strains. Biol Bull Rev. (2021) 11:154–71. doi: 10.1134/S207908642102002X
5. Kesson AM. Respiratory virus infections. Paediatr Respir Rev. (2007) 8:240–8. doi: 10.1016/j.prrv.2007.07.003
6. Bremer C, Huismans H, Van Dijk A. Characterization and cloning of the African horsesickness virus genome. J Gen Virol. (1990) 71:793–9. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-71-4-793
7. Deem SL, Spelman LH, Yates RA, Montali RJ. Canine distemper in terrestrial carnivores: a review. J Zoo Wildl Med. (2000) 31:441–51. doi: 10.1638/1042-7260(2000)031(0441:CDITCA)2.0.CO;2
8. Wakamatsu N, King DJ, Seal BS, Samal SK, Brown CC. The pathogenesis of newcastle disease: a comparison of selected newcastle disease virus wild-type strains and their infectious clones. Virology. (2006) 353:333–43. doi: 10.1016/j.virol.2006.06.013
9. Javanian M, Barary M, Ghebrehewet S, Koppolu V, Vasigala V, Ebrahimpour S, et al. Brief review of influenza virus infection. J Med Virol. (2021) 93:4638–46. doi: 10.1002/jmv.26990
10. Cho JG, Dee SA. Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Theriogenology. (2006) 66:655–62. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2006.04.024
11. Harapan H, Itoh N, Yufika A, Winardi W, Keam S, Te H, et al. Coronavirus disease (2019). (COVID-19): a literature review. J Infect Public Health. (2020) 13:667–73. doi: 10.1016/j.jiph.2020.03.019
12. Gerges Harb J, Noureldine HA, Chedid G, Eldine MN, Abdallah DA, Chedid NF, et al. SARS MERS and COVID-19: clinical manifestations and organ-system complications: a mini review. Pathog Dis. (2020) 78: ftaa033. doi: 10.1093/femspd/ftaa033
13. Carpenter S, Mellor PS, Fall AG, Garros C, Venter GJ. African horse sickness virus: history, transmission, current status. Annu Rev Entomol. (2017) 62:343–58. doi: 10.1146/annurev-ento-031616-035010
14. Lai CC, Shih TP, Ko WC, Tang HJ, Hsueh PR. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19): the epidemic and the challenges. Int J Antimicrob Agents. (2020) 55:105924. doi: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105924
15. Kilbourne ED. Influenza pandemics of the 20th century. Emerg Infect Dis. (2006) 12:9. doi: 10.3201/eid1201.051254
16. Capua I, Marangon S. The Avian influenza epidemic in Italy, 1999-−2000: a review. Avian Pathol. (2000) 29:289–94. doi: 10.1080/03079450050118403
17. Ravi N, Cortade DL, Ng E, Wang SX. Diagnostics for SARS-CoV-2 detection: a comprehensive review of the FDA-EUA COVID-19 testing landscape. Biosens Bioelectron. (2020) 165:112454. doi: 10.1016/j.bios.2020.112454
18. Jarrah SA, Kmetiuk LB, Valleriani F, Bonfini B, Lorusso A, Vasinioti V, et al. SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in dogs and cats in a highly infected area of Brazil during the pandemic. Front Vet Sci. (2023) 10:1111728. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1111728
19. Woelk CH, Holmes EC. Reduced positive selection in vector-borne RNA viruses. Mol Biol Evol. (2002) 19:2333–6. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a004059
20. Pormohammad A, Zarei M, Ghorbani S, Mohammadi M, Razizadeh MH, Turner DL, et al. Efficacy RJ, and safety of COVID-19 vaccines: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Vaccines. (2021) 9:467. doi: 10.3390/vaccines9050467
21. Wu R, Wang L, Kuo HCD, Shannar A, Peter R, Chou PJ, et al. an update on current therapeutic drugs treating COVID-19. Curr Pharmacol Rep. (2020) 6:56–70. doi: 10.1007/s40495-020-00216-7
22. Siddiquei MI, Khan, W. Economic implications of coronavirus. J Public Aff. (2020) 20:e2169. doi: 10.1002/pa.2169
23. Gössling S, Scott D, Hall CM. Pandemics tourism and global change: a rapid assessment of COVID-19. J Sustain Tour. (2020) 29:1–20. doi: 10.1080/09669582.2020.1758708
24. Meltzer MI, Cox NJ, Fukuda K. The economic impact of pandemic influenza in the united states: priorities for intervention. Emerg Infect Dis. (1999) 5:659. doi: 10.3201/eid0505.990507
25. Domingo E, Holland J, RNA. Virus mutations and fitness for survival. Annu Rev Microbiol. (1997) 51:151–78. doi: 10.1146/annurev.micro.51.1.151
26. Harfouch RM, Moualla YM. Epidemiology of COVID-19 in the most pandemic countries: a review article. Acad J Biotechnol. (2021) 9:21–7.
27. Willows S, Hou S, Hobman TC, RNA. Virus capsid proteins: more than just a shell. Future Virol. (2013) 8:435–50. doi: 10.2217/fvl.13.32
28. Wulan WN, Heydet D, Walker EJ, Gahan ME, Ghildyal R. Nucleocytoplasmic transport of nucleocapsid proteins of enveloped RNA viruses. Front Microbiol. (2015) 6:553. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00553
29. McDonald SM. RNA synthetic mechanisms employed by diverse families of RNA viruses. Wiley Interdiscip Rev RNA. (2013) 4:351–67. doi: 10.1002/wrna.1164
30. Duffy S. Why Are RNA virus mutation rates so damn high? PLoS Biol. (2018) 16:e3000003. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000003
31. V'kovski P, Kratzel A, Steiner S, Stalder H, Thiel V. Coronavirus biology and replication: implications for SARS-CoV-2. Nat Rev Microbiol. (2021) 19:155–70. doi: 10.1038/s41579-020-00468-6
32. Strauss EG, Strauss JH. Replication Strategies of the Single Stranded RNA Viruses of Eukaryotes. Cham: Springer. (1983).
33. Sidorenko Y, Reichl U. Structured model of influenza virus replication in MDCK cells. Biotechnol Bioeng. (2004) 88:1–14. doi: 10.1002/bit.20096
34. Holland J, Spindler K, Horodyski F, Grabau E, Nichol S. VandePol S. Rapid evolution of RNA genomes. Science. (1982) 215:1577–85. doi: 10.1126/science.7041255
35. Denison MR, Graham RL, Donaldson EF, Eckerle LD, Baric RS. Coronaviruses: an RNA proofreading machine regulates replication fidelity and diversity. RNA Biol. (2011) 8:270–9. doi: 10.4161/rna.8.2.15013
36. Combe M, Sanjuán R. Variability in the mutation rates of RNA viruses. Future Virol. (2014) 9:605–15. doi: 10.2217/fvl.14.41
37. La Rosa G, Fratini M, Libera SD, Iaconelli M, Muscillo M. Viral infections acquired indoors through airborne, droplet or contact transmission. Ann Ist Super Sanita. (2013) 49:124–32. doi: 10.4415/ANN_13_02_03
38. Judson S, Prescott J, Munster V. Understanding ebola virus transmission. Viruses. (2015) 7:511–21. doi: 10.3390/v7020511
39. Moya A, Holmes EC, González-Candelas F. The population genetics and evolutionary epidemiology of RNA viruses. Nat Rev Microbiol. (2004) 2:279–88. doi: 10.1038/nrmicro863
40. Simancas-Racines A, Cadena-Ullauri S, Guevara-Ramírez P, Zambrano AK, Simancas-Racines D. Avian influenza: strategies to manage an outbreak. Pathogens. (2023) 12:610. doi: 10.3390/pathogens12040610
41. Ghadimipour R, Taghizadeh M, Bashashati M, Ebrahimi MM, Samadi A, Mohammadzadeh S. Monitoring of newcastle disease virus vaccine strain replication in embryonated chicken eggs by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Arch Razi Inst. (2023) 78:807–13. doi: 10.22092/ARI.2022.359142.2377
42. Oh D, De Spiegelaere W, Nauwynck H. Selection and validation of reference genes for RT-qPCR normalization of porcine alveolar macrophages (PAMs) for PRRSV studies. Sci Rep. (2023) 13:8840. doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-35873-3
43. Alotaibi BS, Tantry BA, Bandy A, Ahmad R, Khursheed SQ, Ahmad A, et al. Simultaneous detection of influenza A/B, respiratory syncytial virus, and SARS-CoV-2 in nasopharyngeal swabs by one-tube multiplex reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Trop Med Infect Dis. (2023) 8:326. doi: 10.3390/tropicalmed8060326
44. Shaib H, Hussaini H, Sleiman R, Iskandarani Y, Obeid Y. Development and validation of an indirect whole-virus ELISA using a predominant genotype VI velogenic newcastle disease virus isolated from lebanese poultry. Open J Vet Med. (2023) 13:82–95. doi: 10.4236/ojvm.2023.136008
45. Luo S, Deng X, Xie Z, Huang J, Zhang M, Li M, et al. Production and identification of monoclonal antibodies and development of a sandwich ELISA for detection of the H3-subtype avian influenza virus antigen. AMB Express. (2020) 10:1–9. doi: 10.1186/s13568-020-00988-7
46. Baborenko YP, Byadovskaya O, Biryuchenkov D, Konstantinov A, Yashin R. Development and use of indirect liquid-phase ELISA test system for detection of PRRS virus antigen during in-process control of raw materials intended for vaccine production. Vet Sci Today. (2020) 33:109–114. doi: 10.29326/2304-196X-2020-2-33-109-114
47. Zhang Y, Xu G, Zhang L, Zhao J, Ji P, Li Y, et al. Development of a double monoclonal antibody–based sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detecting canine distemper virus. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. (2020) 104:10725–35. doi: 10.1007/s00253-020-10997-y
48. Taesuji M, Rattanamas K, Kulthonggate U, Mamom T, Ruenphet S. Sensitivity and specificity for african horse sickness antibodies detection using monovalent and polyvalent vaccine antigen-based dot blotting. Vet World. (2022) 15:2760. doi: 10.14202/vetworld.2022.2760-2763
49. Brant AC, Tian W, Majerciak V, Yang W, Zheng ZM. SARS-CoV-2: From Its discovery to genome structure, transcription, and replication. Cell Biosci. (2021) 11:1–17. doi: 10.1186/s13578-021-00643-z
50. Spaan W, Cavanagh D. Horzinek, coronaviruses: structure m, genome expression. J Gen Virol. (1988) 69:2939–52. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-69-12-2939
51. Satarker S. Nampoothiri M. Structural proteins in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2. Arch Med Res. (2020) 51:482–91. doi: 10.1016/j.arcmed.2020.05.012
52. Carabelli AM, Peacock TP, Thorne LG, Harvey WT, Hughes J, Peacock SJ, et al. SARS-CoV-2 variant biology: immune escape, transmission and fitness. Nat Rev Microbiol. (2023) 21:162–77. doi: 10.1038/s41579-022-00841-7
53. Telenti A, Hodcroft EB, Robertson DL. The evolution and biology of SARS-CoV-2 variants. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. (2022) 12:a041390. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a041390
54. Willett BJ, Grove J, MacLean OA, Wilkie C, Logan N, Lorenzo GD, et al. The hyper-transmissible SARS-CoV-2 omicron variant exhibits significant antigenic change, vaccine escape and a switch in cell entry mechanism. MedRxiv (2022) 2022:01. doi: 10.1101/2022.01.03.21268111
55. Tiwari R, Dhama K, Sharun K, Iqbal Yatoo M, Malik YS, Singh R, et al. COVID-19: Animals veterinary and zoonotic links. Vet Q. (2020) 40:169–82. doi: 10.1080/01652176.2020.1766725
56. Mishra J, Mishra P, Arora NK. Linkages between environmental issues and zoonotic diseases: with reference to COVID-19 pandemic. Environ Sustain. (2021) 4:455–67. doi: 10.1007/s42398-021-00165-x
57. Ulrich L, Wernike K, Hoffmann D, Mettenleiter TC, Beer M. Experimental infection of cattle with SARS-CoV-2. Emerg Infect Dis. (2020) 26:2979. doi: 10.3201/eid2612.203799
58. Albina E. Epidemiology of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS): an overview. Vet Microbiol. (1997) 55:309–16. doi: 10.1016/S0378-1135(96)01322-3
59. Mötz M, Stadler J, Kreutzmann H, Ladinig A, Lamp B, Auer A, et al. Conserved stem-loop structure within ORF5 is a frequent recombination hotspot for porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus 1 (PRRSV-1) with a particular modified live virus (MLV) strain. Viruses. (2023) 15:258. doi: 10.3390/v15010258
60. Music N, Gagnon CA. The role of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) virus structural and non-structural proteins in virus pathogenesis. Anim Health Res Rev. (2010) 11:135–63. doi: 10.1017/S1466252310000034
61. Wissink E, Kroese M, Van Wijk H, Rijsewijk F, Meulenberg J, Rottier P. Envelope protein requirements for the assembly of infectious virions of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. J Virol. (2005) 79:12495–506. doi: 10.1128/JVI.79.19.12495-12506.2005
62. Kappes MA, Faaberg KS, PRRSV. structure replication and recombination: origin of phenotype and genotype diversity. Virology. (2015) 479:475–86. doi: 10.1016/j.virol.2015.02.012
63. Stadejek T, Stankevicius A, Murtaugh MP, Oleksiewicz MB. Molecular evolution of PRRSV in Europe: current state of play. Vet Microbiol. (2013) 165:21–8. doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.02.029
64. Lunney JK, Fang Y, Ladinig A, Chen N, Li Y, Rowland B, et al. Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV): pathogenesis and interaction with the immune system. Annu Rev Anim Biosci. (2016) 4:129–54. doi: 10.1146/annurev-animal-022114-111025
65. Franzo G, Barbierato G, Pesente P, Legnardi M, Tucciarone CM, Sandri G, et al. Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) epidemiology in an integrated pig company of northern italy: a multilevel threat requiring multilevel interventions. Viruses. (2021) 13:2510. doi: 10.3390/v13122510
66. Madapong A, Saeng-Chuto K, Boonsoongnern A, Tantituvanont A, Nilubol D. Cell-Mediated immune response and protective efficacy of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus modified-live vaccines against co-challenge with PRRSV-1 and PRRSV-2. Sci Rep. (2020) 10:1649. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-58626-y
67. Peiris JM, De Jong MD, Guan Y. Avian influenza virus (H5N1): a threat to human health. Clin Microbiol Rev. (2007) 20:243–67. doi: 10.1128/CMR.00037-06
68. Skelton RM, Huber VC. Comparing influenza virus biology for understanding influenza d virus. Viruses. (2022) 14:1036. doi: 10.3390/v14051036
69. Asha K, Kumar B. Emerging influenza D virus threat: what we know so far! J Clin Med. (2019) 8:192. doi: 10.3390/jcm8020192
70. Liu R, Sheng Z, Huang C, Wang D, Li F. Influenza D virus. Curr Opin Virol. (2020) 44:154–61. doi: 10.1016/j.coviro.2020.08.004
71. Zhu Z, Fodor E, Keown JR. A structural understanding of influenza virus genome replication. Trends Microbiol. (2022). doi: 10.1016/j.tim.2022.09.015
72. Haddas R. Newcastle disease virus. Infect Dis. (2023) 2023:427. doi: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2463-0_1093
73. Haenni AL, Joshi S, Chapeville F. RNA-like structures in the genomes of RNA viruses. Prog Nucleic Acid Res Mol Biol. (1982) 27:85–104. doi: 10.1016/S0079-6603(08)60598-X
74. Peeters B, Gruijthuijsen Y, De Leeuw O, Gielkens A. Genome replication of newcastle disease virus: involvement of the rule-of-six. Arch Virol. (2000) 145:1829–45. doi: 10.1007/s007050070059
76. Martinez-Gutierrez M, Ruiz-Saenz J. Diversity of susceptible hosts in canine distemper virus infection: a systematic review and data synthesis. BMC Vet Res. (2016) 12:1–11. doi: 10.1186/s12917-016-0702-z
77. Carvalho OV, Botelho CV, Ferreira CGT, Scherer PO, Soares-Martins JAP, Almeida MR, et al. Immunopathogenic and neurological mechanisms of canine distemper virus. Adv Virol. (2012) 2012:163860. doi: 10.1155/2012/163860
78. Nagai Y. Paramyxovirus replication and pathogenesis. Reverse genetics transforms understanding. Rev Med Virol. (1999) 9:83–99.
79. Cleaveland S, Kaare M, Knobel D, Laurenson MK. Canine vaccination—providing broader benefits for disease control. Vet Microbiol. (2006) 117:43–50. doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2006.04.009
80. Schultz RD. Duration of immunity for canine and feline vaccines: a review. Vet Microbiol. (2006) 117:75–9. doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2006.04.013
81. Zientara S, Weyer CT, Lecollinet S. African horse sickness. Rev Sci Tech. (2015) 34:315–27. doi: 10.20506/rst.34.2.2359
82. Dennis SJ, Meyers AE, Hitzeroth II, Rybicki EP. African Horse Sickness: A Review of Current Understanding and Vaccine Development. Viruses. (2019) 11:844. doi: 10.3390/v11090844
Keywords: RNA viruses, mutation rate, COVID-19, PRRS, influenza, Newcastle diseases, canine distemper, African horse sickness
Citation: Petrone-García VM, Castellanos-Huerta I and Tellez-Isaias G (2023) Editorial: High-impact respiratory RNA virus diseases. Front. Vet. Sci. 10:1273650. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1273650
Received: 07 August 2023; Accepted: 08 August 2023;
Published: 22 August 2023.
Edited and reviewed by: Michael Kogut, United States Department of Agriculture, United States
Copyright © 2023 Petrone-García, Castellanos-Huerta and Tellez-Isaias. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Inkar Castellanos-Huerta, Y2FzdGVsbGFub3MuaW5rYXImI3gwMDA0MDtnbWFpbC5jb20=