Emotional intelligence training in health students: a pilot study

Introduction: The aim of this study was to test the effectiveness of an emotional intelligence (EI) program based on the tripartite model, combining theory and practical physical activity for health training students.

Method: This pilot study was conducted with 68 students between October 2020 and October 2021. One group received the EI training intervention (n = 34) combining 8 h of theory and 10 h of practical exercises with physical activities on different EC based on scientific literature. While the other group served as a control group (n = 34) and received an intervention on a topic other than emotional intelligence (i.e., sociological approach to the body) during 18 h (n = 34) Participants of both groups were required to complete the trait EI questionnaire in the pre and post-test.

Results: Results showed a significant increase in emotion expression, emotion identification, stress management, emotional management, emotional abilities, sociability and emotional intelligence. No significant change was observed in the control group.

Discussion: These findings suggest that EI can be improved with physical activities and open possibilities to include EI program in health training program.

Introduction

The links between stress and health have been the subject of much research on health education. Indeed, in addition to academic stress (e.g., heavy workload, exams), students are confronted with additional stress during their internship (e.g., regular confrontation with the death or suffering of patients, difficult work conditions, time pressure (1–4). However, there are few training contents that teach them how to cope with situations perceived as stressful. It is essential to integrate tools that enable students to learn to cope with difficulties of the profession. In France, university training generally focuses on theoretical knowledge and tends to neglect development of psychological skills. Yet, different psychological determinants are negatively correlated with high stress: emotional competences (EC), coping strategies to deal with the problem or stress tolerance (5–8). Furthermore, given the stressful nature of health training, it seems appropriate to include EI development earlier and preventively in the training curriculum.

EC are defined as the ability of an individual to understand, use, identify, express and regulate their own and others’ emotions (9). Research on Emotional Intelligence (EI) is based on two conceptual models: the Ability model (10) and the Trait model (11, 12). Proponents of the Ability model view Emotional Intelligence (EI) as a cognitive skill responsible for processing emotion-related information (10). In contrast to the Ability model, the Trait approach views Emotional Intelligence (EI) as a characteristic associated with an individual's personality (11, 12). The tripartite model represents a third theoretical perspective on EI that is gaining traction, particularly in health-related contexts (9). This model is presented as a useful alternative to the traditional conceptualization of Emotional Intelligence (EI) as either a trait or an ability. These five EC could be broken down into three levels: knowledge, representing what the individual knows about emotional skills; ability, which is the application of this knowledge in an emotional situation when the individual is invited to do so in practical exercises; trait, representing how to deal with emotional situations (9). Furthermore, recent systematic reviews EC showed that they play an important role on well-being, physical health, performance and social relationships (13–15). Moreover, the implementation of intervention programs aimed to develop EC has been the subject of several studies (16, 17). However, the number of sessions and their duration differ widely between programs, and even more when it comes to the form and content of these interventions (e.g., conference, workshop, practical exercises…). In view of professional activity's requirements for the caregivers, we can then wonder about the most adequate tools used to enable them developing their emotional skills. For example, several studies show that regular physical activity is negatively correlated with stress and positively correlated with well-being, health, performances and social relationships (18–21). Physical activity is defined as “any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure. The energy expenditure can be measured in kilocalories. Physical activity in daily life can be categorized into occupational, sports, conditioning, household, or other activities”. (p 124, 22). A recent survey carried out by ONAPS¹ in 2023, shows that students from health, science and engineering backgrounds are significantly more sedentary compared with other courses. They indicate that the absence of a free teaching unit devoted to physical activity is a major obstacle. In addition, it has been shown that physically active students are more emotionally competent (23–25). Or, some studies integrate physical activity as a tool to develop EC (26, 27). However, there are few studies based on physical activity to determine whether this tool could be relevant to the development of EC. The aim of this study is to observe whether physical activity can be a relevant tool for developing the emotional skills of students in health training.

Method

Participants

68 students in health training participated in a pilot study. To participate, students had to be enrolled in the third year of a bachelor's degree in Sports Science (STAPS) with a specialization in Adapted Physical Activities and Health (APAS) and who did not engage in physical activity outside of their academic studies. Our choice of population focused on these students because they no longer have integrated sports practice in their curriculum in the third year. The choice to include participants based on voluntary participation seemed important to us in order to prevent dropouts during the program. The gender distribution is not provided because several participants chose not to share this information. The majority of students were between 18 and 24 years old, i.e., more than 90% of the sample (n = 64). The other participants were in the 25–34 age group (n = 4). The age range of membership was preferred to the actual age in order to respect personal data (Statement #123).

Students whose overall global EI level was higher than the top quarter percentile of the sample were excluded from the study.

Questionnaire

The French version of the TEIque was used in this research (28). The questionnaire consists of 153 items and measures on a total of 13 facets (i.e., self-esteem, emotional expression, emotional regulation, happiness, empathy, social skills, impulsivity, emotional perception, stress management, emotion management, optimism, interpersonal skills, and self-confidence), 2 auxiliary facets (i.e., adaptability and self-motivation), and the overall EI level. The 13 facets allow the scoring of 4 factors: well-being (i.e., self-esteem, happiness and optimism items); self-control (i.e., emotional regulation, impulsivity and stress management items); emotional skills (i.e., emotion perception, empathy and emotion management items) and sociability (i.e., social competence, assertiveness and interpersonal skills items). The participants had to rate these items on a scale of 1 (= completely disagree) to 7 (= completely agree). The internal consistency of the French validation of global trait EI has a Cronbach's alpha of .95.

Procedure

A presentation of the research training was made in the training institutions in order to recruit student volunteers to participate in the interventions. An email is then sent to interested students to inform them about the training organization. They are informed beforehand by the scientific manager of the study objectives, its methodology, its duration, its constraints and foreseeable risks. Participants are specially informed that they are entirely free to refuse to participate to the study and to withdraw their consent at any time without incurring any liability or prejudice as a result. They are also informed that they can ask their data destruction. A consent form is sent to participants for signature before the study starts. Students had the choice of not participating in the study, participating as part of the control group, participating as part of the experimental-practice group. Two groups are formed: a control group that received an intervention on a topic other than emotional intelligence (i.e., sociological approach of the body) during 18 h (n = 34) and one intervention group on emotional intelligence: experimental-practice (n = 34) The TEIque was completed electronic format or paper format when it was not possible to complete the questionnaire electronically by all participants: before starting the program and at the end of the program to assess the effectiveness of the intervention programs. A declaration to the Ethic Committee for the Research in sports sciences students (CERSTAPS) and to the CNIL was made in the context of this thesis and therefore for this study. The principle of data's anonymization is guaranteed to the participants.

Intervention

The intervention training was implemented between October 2020 and October 2021. EC intervention training was designed for this research. The experimental-practice training consisted of theoretical content on EI and practical work. This training involved 34 students in health students participating in a program combining 8 h of theory and 10 h of practical exercises. The theoretical content aims to provide students with knowledge about emotional competencies and their relevance, particularly in the context of healthcare professions. It is based on scientific literature (e.g., 29) and serves to introduce the practical sessions related to physical activity. The practical exercises consist of engaging in playful activities designed to get students moving and focused on the five major emotional competencies based on scientific literature (i.e., 26, 27, 30–32). The duration of the intervention program was set at 18 h following the study by Nelis et al. (29), which showed that an 18 h program was sufficient to improve emotional skills. The introductory session of the program aimed to conduct the first administration of the TEIQue, present the program, and provide an intervention on Emotional Intelligence (EI) in health education. The following three sessions were organized as follows: a theoretical session to provide knowledge on one or more emotional competencies, followed by one or two practical sessions in the gymnasium related to the emotional competencies covered in the theoretical content (Table 1).

Table 1

Table 1. Content EC program.

Data analysis

Independent t test, repeated measures analyses of variance and paired sample test were performed for each dimension of the TEIque to compare scores between time 1 and time 2 using JASP software.

Results

Independent t-tests showed that there were no baseline differences between the experimental and the control group on any of the variables under consideration (Table 2).

Table 2

Table 2. Means, standard deviations and significance of differences between experimental and control group prior to EI intervention.

Mixed model group (experimental vs. control) × time (time 1, time 2) repeated measures ANOVAs were performed on each measure, with group as between-subject factor and time as within-subject factor. In each case, we were looking for a group × time interaction, which would indicate a differential change for the two groups.

Analyses yielded a significant group × time interaction for expression of emotion [F (1,66) = 9.013, p = 0.004 and η²p = 0.120]; perception of emotion [F (1,66) = 25.013, p < .001 and η²p = 0.275]; stress management [F (1,66) = 12.790, p < .001 and η²p = 0.162]; emotional management [F (1,66) = 12.790, p < .001 and η²p = 0.151]; emotional abilities [F (1,66) = 12.790, p < .001 and η²p = 0.322]; sociability [F (1,66) = 12.790, p < .001 and η²p = 0.160] and emotional Intelligence [F (1,66) = 27.871, p < .001 and η²p = 0.297]. As illustrated by the descriptive plots for these variables, all effects indicate an increase from pre to post-test scores in the intervention group when compared to the control group (Figure 1).

Figure 1

Figure 1. Effect of EI intervention across two time (time 1 = before training, time 2 = after training) of evaluation for the two groups (experimental and control group).

The t-statistics related to the comparison of the pre and post test of the different groups, as well as the significant differences after the interventions, are shown in Table 3.

Table 3

Table 3. Student's paired sample and significance of differences after intervention for each variable and each group.

EP group showed a significant increase on global EC, d = 0.97; Sociability, d = 0.69; Emotional Abilities, d = 1.14; Well-being, d = 0.54; Optimism, d = 0.58; Emotional Management, d = 0.62; Stress Management, d = 0.72; Emotional Perception, d = 1.016; Social skills, d = 0.53; Motivation, d = 0.52 and Emotional Expression, d = 0.78. Conference group showed a significant increase on global EC, d = 0.80; Emotional Perception, d = 0.58; Stress Management, d = 0.71; Adaptability, d = 0.71; Interpersonal Skills, d = 0.78 and Optimism, d = 0.83. As expected, the control group showed no significant difference between pre and post test on most measures (p ranging from 0.014 to 0.969).

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine whether a theoretical and practical training program on EC could increase the EC level of students in health education. The results obtained allow us to highlight several effects of our intervention program.

We observe significant differences after the intervention for the participants in the intervention program and no statistical difference for the control group. The results of the experimental group show an improvement in global EC, emotional expression, emotional perception, stress management, emotional management, social skills, sociability, motivation, optimism, emotional abilities and well-being. The program offered to the students consisted of theoretical conferences on different EC and then the application of the theoretical content in practical exercises. Among the exercises, several targeted expressing, identifying and regulating one's own emotions and those of others. These exercises, for the most part, derived from the work conducted by Laborde et al. (27) and Fernandez-Gamez (26), have been proven to improve these different skills. Our results thus confirm the previous results obtained by these authors. In addition, other activities such as self-defense or dance were integrated into our practical sessions. The self-defense session aimed providing the students with a basis to learn how to communicate and to manage conflict and emotions. Indeed, a previous study showed that intervention programs directed towards these activities improved cognitive and emotional self-regulation skills and social behavior of children (31). In addition, another study conducted on 120 subjects practiced a combat sport (i.e., judo or boxing) and non-athletes showed that the practitioners obtained higher scores on perception, use and control of emotions. The dance session purpose was to express and understand the emotions felt in the activity. A review of the literature on emotional intelligence and dance showed that this activity was beneficial for the emotional and affective development of the individual (30). This justifies the choice of this activity. In addition, cardiac coherence exercises for breathing and stretching exercises and self-massage for muscle relaxation were also implemented to teach students to better manage their stress and relax. The improvement in stress management skills of the participating students suggests that these activities were effective. Moreover, a study conducted by Sarabia-Cobon (33) obtained similar results during its cardiac coherence program conducted with 72 careers. Furthermore, the aim of the practical sessions was to set up playful exercises that promote cooperation and communication between the participants. This could explain the improvement in the level of sociability of this group. Our results confirm those of previous works which showed that a cooperative dynamic increases motivation and improves self-efficacy and pro-social behavior (34–36). Regarding the improvement of well-being, it could be associated with the practice of exercises around physical activities within the practical sessions. Indeed, studies show the influence of activity on the level of well-being of students (23, 37).

Moreover, contrary to what one might have thought, there was no improvement in the level of empathy for all groups. There are two reasons for this. Firstly, analyzing the pre-test results conducted to see that the empathy level was above 5 for the groups. This could be explained by the fact that the level of empathy could be a characteristic of students choosing to go into health studies. Indeed, a study of 363 medical students found that high levels of empathy were associated to choose a person-centered rather than technology-centered medical career (38). It would be interesting to conduct a study with students to confirm this hypothesis and thus observe whether certain personality traits influence the choice of career orientation.

Conclusion

The implementation of an intervention program based on the tripartite model of emotional intelligence aimed to evaluate a pedagogical modality coupling theory and practice. The aim was to establish a recommendation for integrating a free teaching unit on physical activity and emotional competencies in health training. These results are encouraging regarding the use of the tripartite model to address the concept of EC. They provide interesting perspectives on its use in health training. The results obtained are even more meaningful in the light of the health crisis we experienced. Indeed, epidemic COVID-19 was accompanied by an increase in anxiety and depressive disorders, sleep disorders, acute stress disorders, and post-traumatic stress disorders among healthcare workers (39, 40). The increase in these disorders showed that the health workers and students involved in the crisis were not prepared to face this kind of situation (41). Our study represents an interesting lever for learning to better manage similar situations in the future. However, EC oriented care could act on all three stages of work-related stress prevention. Indeed, for primary prevention, this early management would prepare students to cope with difficult situations through the integration of emotionally intelligent behaviors such as reflection and reframing, compromise, calmness, control of discomfort and appropriate expression of emotions (42, 43). Secondary prevention can be carried out with students or nurses who are aware that they have difficulties managing their stress or expressing their emotions in a way that limits the consequences that could be harmful to their health. To do this, discussion groups, breathing exercises, physical activity or tools that encourage the expression of emotions can be used (25, 33, 44, 45). EI-oriented interventions can also be used in tertiary prevention for the management of post-traumatic stress or burnout (46, 47). Our study also provides an interesting path for future research to be extended to all types of audiences who have experienced difficult emotional situations.

However, our study has some limitations. Regarding the sample size, this was a pilot study based on voluntary participation. Therefore, the size of our sample depended on the students' willingness to join the intervention program. Some students expressed that they did not feel the need for interventions to learn how to manage or express their emotions. Other researchers have taken a different approach. For example, Campo et al. (48) included an entire rugby team in his intervention on Emotional Intelligence (EI) without considering the athletes' interest in this type of practice. Following this program, he observed a significant improvement in EI, even among athletes who had not shown particular motivation to engage in this type of exercise (48). Such interventions could, therefore, be beneficial for everyone, even if individuals do not initially express a specific need for them. A larger sample would have provided a more representative cross-section of this student population. Moreover, unlike some studies, we did not take the variable gender to account EI level. We made this choice for several reasons. The gender distribution is not provided because several participants chose not to share this information. Furthermore, a large proportion of students in health training programs are female. In this context, it seemed difficult to obtain representative data given the gender disparity in our sample, especially since our sample was not randomized but constructed based on voluntary participation. It would be interesting to take this variable into account in the future to verify whether, as some studies have shown, gender is a significant moderator of the relationship between medical students' emotional intelligence and stress coping (25, 49). Regarding the intervention program, we only evaluated the effectiveness of a program combining theory and practice for the development of emotional competencies. Therefore, we cannot determine whether it was the practical exercises, the theory, or the theory/practice program that contributed to improving the students' emotional competencies. It would have been interesting to have an intervention group that completed 18 h of theory only and another that did 18 h of practical exercises only, in order to determine the most effective modality. These elements thus provide us with interesting avenues to explore in the context of future research.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by Comité d'Ethique pour la Recherche en STAPS. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

MD: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. OS: Supervision, Validation, Writing – original draft. NH: Formal Analysis, Writing – original draft. FD: Conceptualization, Data curation, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Writing – original draft.

Funding

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declare that no Generative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Footnote

1. ^ONAPS. (2023). Pratique d’activités physiques et sportives et la sédentarité chez les étudiants en formation universitaire en France, 1-34. https://onaps.fr/enquete-sur-la-pratique-dactivites-physiques-et-sportives-et-la-sedentarite-a-luniversite/

References

1. Deasy C, Coughlan B, Pironom J, Jourdan D, Mannix-McNamara P. Predictors of health of pre-registration nursing and midwifery students: findings from a cross-sectional survey. Nurse Educ Today. (2016) 36:427–33. doi: 10.1016/j.nedt.2015.09.010

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

2. Dugué M, Dosseville F. Understanding nursing student stress and its consequences: a qualitative study in France. BAOJ Med Nurs. (2018) 4(062):2–8.

Google Scholar

3. Mirzaei T, Oskouie F, Rafii F. Nursing students’ time management, reducing stress and gaining satisfaction: a grounded theory study. Nurs Health Sci. (2012) 14(1):46–51. doi: 10.1111/j.1442-2018.2011.00661.x

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

4. Turner K, McCarthy VL. Stress and anxiety among nursing students: a review of intervention strategies in literature between 2009 and 2015. Nurse Educ Pract. (2017) 22:21–9. doi: 10.1016/j.nepr.2016.11.002

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

5. Alconero-Camarero AR, Sarabia-Cobo CM, González-Gómez S, Ibáñez-Rementería I, Lavín-Alconero L, Sarabia-Cobo AB. Nursing students’ emotional intelligence, coping styles and learning satisfaction in clinically simulated palliative care scenarios: an observational study. Nurse Educ Today. (2018) 61:94–100. doi: 10.1016/j.nedt.2017.11.013

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

6. Dugué M, Garncarzyk C, Dosseville F. Déterminants psychologiques du stress chez les étudiants en soins infirmiers. Rev Epidémiol Santé Publique. (2018) 66(6):347–54. doi: 10.1016/j.respe.2018.09.004

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

7. Kim S-H, Shin S. Social–emotional competence and academic achievement of nursing students: a canonical correlation analysis. Int J Environ Res Public Health. (2021) 18(4):1752. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18041752

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

8. Por J, Barriball L, Fitzpatrick J, Roberts J. Emotional intelligence: its relationship to stress, coping, well-being and professional performance in nursing students. Nurse Educ Today. (2011) 31(8):855–60. doi: 10.1016/j.nedt.2010.12.023

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

9. Mikolajczak M, Petrides KV, Coumans N, Luminet O. An experimental investigation of the moderating effects of trait emotional intelligence on laboratory-induced stress. Int J Clin Health Psychol. (2009) 9:455–77.

Google Scholar

10. Mayer JD, Salovey P. What is emotional intelligence? In: Salovey P, Sluyter D, editors. Emotional Development and Emotional Intelligence: Educational Implications. New York: Basic Books (1997). p. 3–31.

Google Scholar

11. Bar-On R. The bar-on model of emotional-social intelligence (ESI). Psicothema. (2006) 18(Suppl):13–25.17295953

PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar

12. Petrides KV. Psychometric properties of the trait emotional intelligence questionnaire (TEIQue). In: Stough C, Saklofske DH, Parker JDA, editors. Assessing Emotional Intelligence: Theory, Research, and Applications. New York, NY: Springer Science (2009). p. 85–101.

Google Scholar

13. Dugué M, Sirost O, Dosseville F. A literature review of emotional intelligence and nursing education. Nurse Educ Pract. (2021) 54:103124. doi: 10.1016/j.nepr.2021.103124

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

14. Petrides KV, Mikolajczak M, Mavroveli S, Sanchez-Ruiz MJ, Furnham A, Pérez-González JC. Developments in trait emotional intelligence research. Emot Rev. (2016) 8(4):335–41. doi: 10.1177/1754073916650493

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

15. Singh N, Kulkarni S, Gupta R. Is emotional intelligence related to objective parameters of academic performance in medical, dental, and nursing students: a systematic review. Education for Health. (2020) 33(1):8. doi: 10.4103/efh.EfH_208_17

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

16. Hodzic S, Scharfen J, Ripoll P, Holling H, Zenasni F. How efficient are emotional intelligence trainings: a meta-analysis. Emot Rev. (2018) 10(2):138–48. doi: 10.1177/1754073917708613

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

17. Kotsou I, Mikolajczak M, Heeren A, Grégoire J, Leys C. Improving emotional intelligence: a systematic review of existing work and future challenges. Emot Rev. (2019) 11(2):151–65. doi: 10.1177/1754073917735902

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

18. Ladner J, Porrovecchio A, Masson P, Zunquin G, Hurdiel R, Pezé T, et al. Activité physique chez les étudiants: prévalence et profils de comportements à risque associés. Santé Publique, S1(HS) (2016).

Google Scholar

19. Loi SM, Dow B, Ames D, Moore K, Hill K, Russell M, et al. Physical activity in caregivers: what are the psychological benefits? Arch Gerontol Geriatr. (2014) 59(2):204–10. doi: 10.1016/j.archger.2014.04.001

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

20. Salman MN. The importance of university students during campus life. Energy Educ Sci Technol B Soc Educ Stud. (2012) 4(1):495–500.

Google Scholar

21. Vankim NA, Nelson TF. Vigorous physical activity, mental health, perceived stress, and socializing among college students. Am J Health Promot. (2013) 28(1):7–15. doi: 10.4278/ajhp.111101-QUAN-395

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

22. Caspersen CJ, Powell KE, Christenson G. Physical activity, exercise and physical fitness: definitions and distinctions for health-related research. Public Health Rep. (1985) 100(2):126–31.3920711

PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar

23. Román-Mata SS, Puertas-Molero P, Ubago-Jiménez JL, González-Valero G. Benefits of physical activity and its associations with resilience, emotional intelligence, and psychological distress in university students from southern Spain. Int J Environ Res Public Health. (2020) 17(12):1–12. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17124474

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

24. Ubago-Jiménez JL, González-Valero G, Puertas-Molero P, García-Martínez I. Development of emotional intelligence through physical activity and sport practice. A systematic review. Behav Sci. (2019) 9(4):1–10. doi: 10.3390/bs9040044

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

25. Wang K, Yang Y, Zhang T, Ouyang Y, Liu B, Luo J. The relationship between physical activity and emotional intelligence in college students: the mediating role of self-efficacy. Front Psychol. (2020) 11:967. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00967

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

26. Fernández-Gámez MÁ, Rosales-Pérez A, Molina-Gómez J, Mora-Lucena L. The effects of outdoor training on the development of emotional intelligence among undergraduate tourism students. Journal of hospitality, leisure. Sport Tour Educ. (2018) 23:39–49. doi: 10.1016/j.jhlste.2018.06.001

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

27. Laborde S, Mosley E, Ackermann S, Mrsic A, Dosseville F. Emotional intelligence in sports and physical activity: An intervention focus. In: Keefer KV, Parker JDA, Saklofske DH, editors. Emotional Intelligence in Education: Integrating Research with Practice. Cham: Springer International Publishing/Springer Nature (2018). p. 289–320. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-90633-1_11

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

28. Mikolajczak M, Luminet O, Leroy C, Roy E. Psychometric properties of the trait emotional intelligence questionnaire: factor structure, reliability, construct, and incremental validity in a French-speaking population. J Pers Assess. (2007) 88:338–53. doi: 10.1080/00223890701333431

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

29. Nelis D, Kotsou I, Quoidbach J, Hansenne M, Weytens F, Dupuis P, et al. Increasing emotional competence improves psychological and physical well-being, social relationships, and employability. Emotion. (2011) 11(2):354–66. doi: 10.1037/a0021554

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

30. San-Juan-Ferrer B, Hípola P. Emotional intelligence and dance: a systematic review. Res Dance Educ. (2020) 21(1):57–81. doi: 10.1080/14647893.2019.1708890

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

31. Lakes KD, Hoyt WT. Promoting self-regulation through school-based martial arts training. J Appl Dev Psychol. (2004) 25(3):283–302. doi: 10.1016/j.appdev.2004.04.002

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

32. Ruiz-Ariza A, Suárez-Manzano S, López-Serrano S, Martínez-López EJ. The effect of cooperative high-intensity interval training on creativity and emotional intelligence in secondary school: a randomised controlled trial. Eur Phys Educ Rev. (2019) 25(2):355–73.

Google Scholar

33. Sarabia-Cobon CM. Heart coherence: a new tool in the management of stress on professionals and family caregivers of patients with dementia. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback. (2015) 40(2):75–83. doi: 10.1007/s10484-015-9276-y

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

34. Agbuga B, Xiang P, McBride R. Students’ attitudes toward an after-school physical activity programme. Eur Phy Educ Rev. (2012) 19(1):91–109. doi: 10.1177/1356336X12465511

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

35. Jaakkola T, Washington T, Yli-Piipari S. The association between motivation in school physical education and self-reported physical activity during Finnish junior high school: a self-determination theory approach. Eur Phy Educ Rev. (2012) 19(1):127–41. doi: 10.1177/1356336X12465514

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

36. Marker AM, Staiano AE. Better together: outcomes of cooperation versus competition in social exergaming. Games Health J. (2015) 4(1):25–30. doi: 10.1089/g4h.2014.0066

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

37. Martin SD, Urban RW, Johnson AH, Magner D, Wilson JE, Zhang Y. Health-related behaviors, self-rated health, and predictors of stress and well-being in nursing students. J Prof Nurs. (2022) 38:45–53. doi: 10.1016/j.profnurs.2021.11.008

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

38. Pantović-Stefanović M, Dunjić-Kostić B, Gligorić M, Lačković M, Damjanović A, Ivković M. Empathy predicting career choice in future physicians. Engrami. (2015) 37(1):37–48. doi: 10.5937/engrami1501037P

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

39. El-Hage W, Hingray C, Lemogne C, Yrondi A, Brunault P, Bienvenu T, et al. Les professionnels de santé face à la pandémie de la maladie à coronavirus (COVID-19): quels risques pour leur santé mentale? Encephale. (2020) 46(3):S73–80. doi: 10.1016/j.encep.2020.04.008

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

40. Li Y, Scherer N, Felix L, Kuper H. Prevalence of depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder in health care workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. (2021) 16(3):e0246454. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0246454

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

41. Roca J, Canet-Vélez O, Cemeli T, Lavedán A, Masot O, Botigué T. Experiences, emotional responses, and coping skills of nursing students as auxiliary health workers during the peak COVID-19 pandemic: a qualitative study. Int J Mental Health Nurs. (2021) 30(5):1080–92. doi: 10.1111/inm.12858

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

42. Chan JCY, Sit ENM, Lau WM. Conflict management styles, emotional intelligence and implicit theories of personality of nursing students: a cross-sectional study. Nurse Educ Today. (2014) 34(6):934–9. doi: 10.1016/j.nedt.2013.10.012

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

43. McCloughen A, Foster K. Nursing and pharmacy students’ use of emotionally intelligent behaviours to manage challenging interpersonal situations with staff during clinical placement: a qualitative study. J Clin Nurs. (2018) 27(13–14):2699–709. doi: 10.1111/jocn.13865

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

44. Borges N, Kirkham K, Deardorff A, Moore J. Development of emotional intelligence in a team based learning internal medicine clerkship. Med Teach. (2012) 34(10):802–6. doi: 10.3109/0142159X.2012.687121

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

45. Jenaabadi H. The effect of training skills of optimism on fostering emotional intelligence of males in education & improvement center in Zahedan. Proc Soc Behav Sci. (2014) 114:191–6. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.683

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

46. Mehrad A. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) effect of coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic and role of emotional intelligence. J Soc Sci Res. (2020) 15:185–90. doi: 10.24297/jssr.v15i.8750

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

47. Szczygiel DD, Mikolajczak M. Emotional intelligence buffers the effects of negative emotions on job burnout in nursing. Front Psychol. (2018) 9:2649. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02649

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

48. Campo M, Laborde S, Mosley E. Emotional intelligence training in team sports: the influence of a season long intervention program on trait emotional intelligence. J Individ Differ. (2016) 37(3):152–8. doi: 10.1027/1614-0001/a000201

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

49. Zhang N, Ren X, Xu Z, Zhang K. Gender differences in the relationship between medical students’ emotional intelligence and stress coping: a cross-sectional study. BMC Med Educ. (2024) 24(1):810. doi: 10.1186/s12909-024-05781-9

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar