Xingli Wan
Shuming Ji3
Min Liu
Wei Shi
Li Zhao- 1Nursing Department, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- 2The Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Sichuan University, Ministry of Education, Chengdu, China
- 3Center of Biostatistics, Design, Measurement and Evaluation (CBDME), West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- 4Department of Health Behavior and Social Medicine, West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- 5Department of Health Policy and Management, West China School of Public Health/West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- 6Institute for Disaster Management and Reconstruction, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- 7Chinese Evidence-Based Medicine Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- 8Department of Health Policy and Management, West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
Background: Empirical research on the relationship between family functioning and delinquency has been sparse, although many studies have focused on the influence of family functioning on adolescent development. The current research aimed to fill this gap by exploring the influences of family functioning on adolescent delinquency and the mechanisms connecting the processes.
Methods: We derived the baseline data from a prospective observational school-based cohort Chengdu Positive Child Development (CPCD) project. Students responded to a questionnaire containing validated measures of family functioning, positive behavior recognition, and delinquent behavior. We utilized structural equation modeling and maximum likelihood estimation to test the relationships.
Results: Across 8811 Chinese adolescents, the incidence of delinquency behaviors among Chinese adolescents was relatively low. Family functioning and positive behavior recognition negatively predict delinquency (p < 0.001). Further, positive behavior recognition partially mediated the influence of family functioning on delinquency [p < 0.001, std. error = 0.01, 95% CI = (0.04, 0.07)]. Adolescents with better family functioning had little delinquency behavior, with positive behavior recognition and delinquency behavior negatively reinforcing each other.
Conclusions: This study demonstrated that family functioning was a protective factor against adolescent delinquency and revealed that positive behavior recognition was a critical mediating mechanism linking family functioning to delinquency.
Introduction
Behavioral problems refer to abnormal behaviors that exceed the normal range for the corresponding age in terms of severity and duration (1). Delinquency is a behavioral problem defined as engaging in antisocial behavior (2). Adolescence is a critical period of life development and a transition period characterized by physical, psychological, and social changes when adolescents learn to live independently (3). If adolescents cannot adequately cope with these developmental challenges, problematic behaviors such as delinquency likely emerge (4). Abundant evidence has revealed that delinquency is a growing global concern due to its high incidence, especially among early adolescents in both Western and Chinese backgrounds (5). For example, a representative sample study (N = 4,0502) showed that 46% of adolescents in Grade 7 to 12 in the United States engaged in offending behaviors (5). The studies conducted in Asia, such as in China and South Korea, have shown a relatively low but still significant prevalence of adolescent delinquency (6, 7). A large cross-sectional study reported that the total detection rate of behavioral problems in two districts in Beijing was 16.7% (8). A statistical report on China's Youth Development (2020) jointly released by the China Youth and Children Research Center and the International Liaison Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Youth showed that the number of criminals under 18 is rising (9).
Delinquency has been associated not only with poor outcomes such as alcohol and drug abuse and mental health problems (10–12) but also linked to long-lasting consequences (13), including severely hindering interpersonal development and even social sustainability (14, 15). Early and persistent delinquent acts strongly predicted violent behavior, partner conflict, unemployment later in adolescence (16, 17), and chronic antisocial behavior (18). Given its high prevalence and long-term disruptive outcomes, adolescent delinquency undoubtedly has become a severe social problem that has brought stress and high costs to families and society (19). Thus, identifying the predictive and protective factors for delinquency becomes an essential task of youth studies that could contribute to adolescent health programs.
The family environment is vital to the individual's psychological behavior (20). Family functioning refers to a model in which family members can obtain the necessary material and spiritual conditions to advance and promote their physical, mental, and social development in a healthy and beneficial direction (21). Although many theories and studies (22, 23) suggest that when an individual enters adolescence, his/her focus shifts from family and parents to peers, numerous studies have found that family still profoundly influences adolescents (24, 25). Bronfenbrenner proposes five environmental systems based on the ecosystem theory (1979), from the most private to the most general environment: microsystem, mesoscopic system, external system, macrosystem, and temporal system. Family and peers are the critical microsystem variables that influence an adolescent's risk-taking behavior (26). Family functioning is critical in evaluating the family environment, including role assignment, communication, emotional response and intervention, effective problem-solving ability, and behavior control (27). Psychologists and sociologists stress the importance of parental and positive parent-child relationships for children's growth and development (28, 29). Good family function includes high levels of love and support, positive communication, and behavioral discipline (30), providing positive emotional experience and cognitive attitude for individuals, promoting individual mental health (31) and good adaptation (32), and reducing the incidence of problem behavior (26). However, poor family functioning, such as parent-child conflict and marital conflict between parents, damages adolescents' psychological resources and leads to various problem behaviors (33). Although many studies have explored the influence of family functioning on adolescent development, few scholars in China, except Shek (4, 34, 35), have explored the protective effect of family function on adolescent delinquency and explained the negative correlation with delinquency from the dimension of family functioning. Based on this discussion, we proposed Hypothesis 1: Family function can negatively predict delinquency in Chinese adolescents.
Positive behavior includes visible skills that increase the likelihood of success and personal satisfaction in normative academic, work, social, recreational, community, and family settings. The term “positive behavior” can be seen as equivalent to “prosocial behavior” (36). Positive behavior recognition is the appropriate response of the social environment to such behavior (37). The goal of recognition is to encourage adolescents to continue exhibiting positive behavior. Some researchers have proposed that positive behavior recognition is related to the positive self-perception of adolescents and can increase their likelihood of positive and prosocial behavior (36). Therefore, positive behavior recognition is an essential internal psychological resource for adolescent development. Studies have shown that a high level of identification can effectively reduce adolescent Internet addiction, emotional disorders, and other problem behaviors (38). However, few studies have explored the relationship between positive behavior recognition and delinquency. Thus, we hypothesized that positive behavior recognition significantly and negatively predicts delinquency (Hypothesis 2).
Some studies have confirmed that good family function can positively predict adolescent positive behavior recognition (38–40). A study of 148 adolescents living in the Netherlands with an average age of 15 showed that good maternal communication facilitates adolescents' search for positive behavior identification (40). However, few studies have explored the association between family functioning and positive behavior recognition among Chinese adolescents. Therefore, we hypothesized that family functioning positively predicts Chinese adolescents' positive behavior recognition (Hypothesis 3).
According to the humanistic view, positive behavior signifies positive human development. Rogers, a key figure in humanistic psychology, proposed a theory closely related to positive behavior recognition. According to Rogers (41), unconditional positive respect is one condition that leads to healthy relationships. Unconditional positive respect is when one maintains an unconditional, positive attitude toward others that gives the recipient a sense of self-worth. Positive behavior identification through personal warmth can be an aspect of positive respect. In addition, a significant other's recognition of a child's or adolescent's good deeds through warm and supportive verbal and non-verbal gestures can kickstart an individual's internal organizational enhancement, turning the individual into a better person in the whole process. In this way, unconditional positive respect is critical to human functioning as a form of positive behavior recognition.
There is research on family functioning, positive behavior recognition, and delinquency behaviors. Although some studies have found links between marital discord, parenting, parental attachment, and adolescent delinquency, the underlying mechanisms behind these associations are unclear (42). The family environment has an important influence on individual psychological behavior. Because positive behavior recognition has been considered an essential personal protective resource, few researchers have examined the relationship between family functioning, positive behavior recognition, and delinquency. They rarely discussed the mediating role of positive behavior recognition from a humanistic perspective. Thus, we formulated our hypothesis: Positive behavior recognition is a mediator in the influence of family functioning on adolescent delinquency (Hypothesis 4).
Although there have been many empirical studies on the relationship between family function and adolescent delinquency in the West, whether the conclusions of this study could explain part of the family factors affecting juvenile delinquency in China is not certain. Although many researchers in China have realized that family functioning plays a vital role in influencing adolescent delinquency, few empirical studies have examined the relationship between family functioning and adolescent delinquency. This study aimed to fill the knowledge gap. Based on Rogers' Humanistic Perspective, we predicted that teenagers in a good family functioning environment might have a high level of concern and support, good communication and behavior, discipline, and unconditional positive respect. Therefore, their good deeds are more likely to be identified to enhance the internal organization, recognize positive behavior, increase prosocial behavior, and reduce delinquency.
Some studies on the prevention of adolescent problems suggest that prevention should focus on reducing and preventing problems, but this is a “pathological” approach and limits the public's understanding of the personal potential of adolescents (43). Adolescents are not “troubles” but valuable resources with abilities, potentials, and strengths that can be cultivated and utilized to promote their overall development and active functioning (44). Therefore, the present study aimed to identify and add another internal personal resource to protect adolescents from problem behaviors, hoping to contribute to developing adolescent health programs. However, other problems exist, such as the single research method, small sample size, and lack of high reliability and validity measurement tools. Moreover, the family factors influencing adolescent delinquency are very complex. Based on the humanistic perspective, we hope our study can provide Chinese data by carrying out a large sample empirical study in the context of Chinese culture.
Based on the above four assumptions, the present study proposed a mediation model as the conceptual framework of the present study (see Figure 1). A previous study has found that age and gender were associated with family functioning and adolescent delinquency (45). Hence, we included these demographic variables as control variables in this study.
Figure 1. Hypothesized association among family functioning attributes, positive behavior recognition, and adolescent delinquency. IV, independent variable; M, mediator; DV, dependent variable.
Materials and methods
Participants
We derived the baseline data from a prospective observational school-based cohort Chengdu Positive Child Development (CPCD) Project, launched in December 2019 in Chengdu, the capital of Sichuan province. The CPCD Project aimed to investigate the current state of positive development and psychosocial and behavioral problems in children. The researchers adopted cluster and convenience sampling methods to select five primary and middle schools: one downtown, two in the suburbs in the south, and two in the north of Chengdu. All data are available (see Data Availability statement). The student's legal guardians gave written informed consent prior to participation. The informed consent included a project overview, survey procedures, potential benefits and risks, and a confidentiality agreement. The Medical Ethics Committee approved the study protocol of Sichuan University (K2020025).
Investigative procedures
The project sent the questionnaires as the baseline survey. Students in Grades 1–9 who attended school on the survey date filled in the questionnaire.
Collection and non-response bias are two common types of bias in cross-sectional surveys. Some studies showed no significant difference between the paper-based and online collection methods (46). In addition, self-reported data may be susceptible to social desirability bias as the respondents may tend to provide answers perceived as more socially acceptable. A self-administered questionnaire could reduce the social-desirability bias (47) if the survey questions were sensitive. A lower response rate can easily cause researchers to worry about non-response bias. Transparent and organized paper-based questionnaire items could help participants answer questions quickly to reduce low responses.
Therefore, considering the feasibility of investigating primary schools, we took the following measures to ensure the authenticity and completeness of the information the students filled in.
First, we devised a paper-based and self-administered questionnaire with transparent and organized survey items. Second, we created a quiet and comfortable environment and provided the students plenty of time (40~60 min), and no one was allowed to submit in advance. All students independently completed the questionnaire under the supervision of the head teacher and investigators. Before the study began, the students could ask trained teachers questions when they had problems rather than discuss them with each other. Third, we used some negative scoring items in the questionnaire for logical checking. Finally, we collected the questionnaires on the spot, reviewed them, and promptly corrected them if there were any problems, such as missing data. Questionnaires with logical errors were excluded (For example, a questionnaire in which the respondents offered obvious contradictory answers was excluded).
Measures
Assessment of family functioning
The Chinese Family Assessment Instrument (C-FAI) is a 33-item self-report scale developed to assess family functioning (48). The C-FAI has five subscales, including mutuality (mutual support, love, and concern among family members) (12 items), communication (frequency and nature of interaction among family members) (9 items), conflict and harmony (conflicting and harmonious behavior in the family) (6 items), parental concern (parental support behavior) (3 items), and parental control (harshness of parenting behavior) (3 items). Items include statements such as “Parents often talk to their children,” “Family members care about each other,” and “There is a lack of harmony among family members.” For each item, there is a five-point Likert scale (1 = very similar; 2 = somewhat similar; 3 = between somewhat similar and somewhat dissimilar; 4 = somewhat dissimilar; 5 = very dissimilar). Higher scores reflect greater dysfunction within the family. A previous study has confirmed that the C-FAI was a valid and reliable measure of family functioning (Cronbach's α = 0.933) (49). Our study also showed good reliability in delinquency (Cronbach's α = 0.936).
Assessment of delinquency
We used a 12-item 7-point scale to assess the occurrence of delinquent behaviors of the participants in the past year (50). For each item, there is a six-point scale (0 = never, 1 = one to two times; 2 = three to four times; 3 = five to six times; 4 = seven to eight times; 5 = nine to ten times; 6 = more than ten times). For complete scale information, please refer to Appendix A. A higher score on this scale denoted a greater degree of delinquency. This scale demonstrated good validity and reliability in the previous two studies (α = 0.76, α = 0.88, respectively) (50, 51). Cronbach's alpha in this study was 0.835.
Assessment of positive behavior recognition
We selected the Recognition for Positive Behavior subscale (PB) (51) from the Chinese Positive Youth Development Scale (CPYDS) designed by Shek et al. (5). There are four items in the subscale. The items were developed after reviewing the literature (52) and discussing between the first two authors. For each item, there is a six-point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 2 = relatively disagree; 3 = slightly disagree; 4 = slightly agree; 5 = relatively agree; 6 = strongly agree). For complete scale information, please refer to Appendix B. Higher scores on this scale indicated greater positive behavior recognition. The previous study has shown the scale had good validity and reliability (α = 0.76 and 0.80 at pre-and post-test) (53). Cronbach's α for this scale in our study was good (α = 0.772).
Data analysis
We used the EpiData 3.1 (EpiData Association, Odense, Denmark) for double data entry and logic error verification. We used student's t-test to compare continuous variables (age, body mass index [BMI]) and the Mann–Whitney U test to compare non-normally distributed continuous variables (family functioning, positive behavior recognition, delinquency). To compare categorical variables (sex), we used the Chi-square test. Any P-values <0.05 were considered statistically significant.
To test the hypothetical models depicted in Figure 1, we performed the structural equation model in R version 4.1.3 with packages lavaan and semplot, using maximum likelihood estimation with robust standard errors. We performed the structural equation modeling analysis in two steps: (i) We examined the total effect of family functioning on positive behavior recognition and delinquency; (ii) We examined the direct and indirect effects of family functioning on delinquency, considering positive behavior recognition as a potential mediator. We considered that the adolescents' positive behavior recognition might display diversity due to their different ages, sex, and BMI. Therefore, age, sex, and BMI were included in the model to correct these effects on adolescents' positive behavior recognition.
In order to facilitate the interpretation of model results and the comparison of effect values, we multiplied the score of C-FAI by −1 to keep all correlations in the same direction. In addition, we assessed the overall fitting performance of the model by using the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), normed fit index (NFI), non-normed fit index (NNFI), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) and other indicators. Generally speaking, CFI, NFI, and NNFI values >0.9 and RMSEA values <0.08 are considered good model fit indices (54). However, the cut-off value of the structural equation model fit indices is always controversial. MacCallum et al. proposed that an RMSEA of between 0.08 to 0.10 provides a mediocre fit and below 0.08 shows a good fit (55). The cut-off as low as 0.80 has been proferred; however, Bentler and Hu have suggested NNFI ≥ 0.95 as the threshold (56).
Results
Descriptive statistics
We sent out a total of 8,968 questionnaires during the baseline survey, and a total of 8,811 students in Grades 1–9 (aged 6–16) who attended school on the survey date have completed the questionnaire, with a response rate of 98.4%. There were slightly more boys than girls (51.6 vs. 48.4%) and more primary than middle school students (62.7 vs. 37.3%). More students lived in urban than rural areas (65.0 vs. 35.0%). Moreover, the average age of boys and girls is 12.86 ± 2.33 and 12.90 ± 2.32, respectively.
The detection rate of delinquency behavior
Results in Table 1 show that delinquency behaviors were relatively low among Chinese adolescents. More than 90% of the respondents reported that they had never stolen, fought in a gang, or had a sexual relationship with others (other than assault and damaging others' properties) in the past year. In contrast, about half of the respondents reported having cheated on somebody or spoken foul language.
Table 1. Summary table of the reported frequency of delinquency behavior (N = 8,811).
Descriptive statistics of the participants on delinquency, family functioning, positive behavior recognition
Table 2 indicates boys scored significantly higher on delinquency than girls (t = 11.24, P < 0.001). Boys also scored higher on family functioning than girls (t = 3.44, P < 0.001), indicating boys have higher family dysfunction levels than girls. However, boys scored lower on positive behavior recognition than girls (t = −3.79, P < 0.001).
Table 2. Descriptive statistics of the participants on delinquency, family functioning, and positive behavior recognition.
Correlations among variables
Table 3 shows the correlations among variables. Family functioning was negatively related to delinquency (r = −0.28, P < 0.001). The four dimensions of Family Functioning (mutuality, communication, conflict and harmony, and parent concern) had a relatively higher correlation (r = −0.25, r = −0.25, r = −0.24, r = −0.23, P < 0.001, respectively) to delinquency than parent control (r = −0.13, P < 0.001). Positive behavior recognition was negatively related to delinquency (r = −0.21, P < 0.001). Family functioning was positively correlated with positive behavior recognition (r = 0.34, P < 0.001). Overall, these observed results are consistent with our original hypotheses.
Table 3. Intercorrelation matrix for family functioning variables, positive behavior recognition, and delinquency.
Predictions of delinquency and mediating effect of positive behavior recognition
Model testing
The model assessment showed an acceptable model fit. The results were χ2 = 2,533.635, df = 31, CFI =0.896, NFI = 0.895, NNFI = 0.859, RMSEA = 0.096 [95% CI = (0.093, 0.096)]. More information about the Model fit is in Appendix C.
Testing of mediation effects
Figure 2 outlines the standardized path coefficients and path significance of the relationships between family functioning, positive behavior recognition, and delinquency. First, family functioning (β = −0.26, P < 0.001) negatively predicted adolescent delinquency, supporting Hypothesis 1.
Figure 2. Standardized path coefficients for the relationship between family functioning, positive behavior recognition, and delinquency. ***p < 0.001, **p < 0.01.
Second, positive behavior recognition showed negative predictive effects on adolescent delinquency (β = −0.12, P < 0.001), supporting Hypothesis 2.
Third, Family functioning positively contributed to positive behavior recognition (β = 0.35, P < 0.001), supporting Hypothesis 3.
Table 4 presents the path coefficients and the decomposition of effects in the structural mediation model. When using positive behavior recognitions as the mediator, the indirect effects of family functioning on delinquency were also significant, supporting the mediating effect model [β = −0.04, b = −0.06, 95% CI = (−0.07, −0.04), P = 0]. Overall, the mediation model explained 10.1% of the variance in delinquency.
Table 4. Presents the path coefficients and indirect effects of family functioning on delinquency.
Discussion
Family functioning negatively predicts adolescent delinquency
Regarding our first research question, correlation and regression analyses consistently revealed that family functioning could negatively predict adolescent delinquency. Adolescents with better family mutuality, communication, parental concern, and fewer family conflicts had less delinquency behavior. These findings supported our initial hypothesis 1. These results are also consistent with the findings of other studies (34, 35, 57, 58). A positive and supportive family environment could reduce delinquent behavior because children who received warm care from their parents were more likely to conform to rules and develop positive behavior (59, 60).
As adolescents grow up, they relate to non-family members such as their peers (61); more family conflicts and poor family communication might even push them to seek non-familial support (57). The difficulties children have experienced at home are then carried over into school life and peer relationships, resulting in disrupted relationships with mainstream peer groups. To regain a sense of membership, those individuals whom conventional peers reject may join delinquent peer groups and have their antisocial behaviors reinforced (35). Previous studies have shown that parental control and concern (parental support behavior) effectively reduce adolescent conduct problems (62–65). Authoritative parenting is conducive to establishing a positive parent-child relationship, facilitating children's open communication with parents, enhancing parents' ability to identify potential risks children may encounter, and intervening when necessary (66). However, the correlation between parent control and delinquency in the present study was relatively low compared to the other four dimensions of family functioning, as shown in Table 3. This may suggesting that parental control is less important than the other four factors, further strengthening other four aspects of family functioning may increase the extent to which family functioning contributes to adolescent delinquency.
In general, the findings are congruent with the family systems theory expectation that the development of family function attributes provides the essential external resources to protect adolescents from delinquency. The current findings broaden existing family function literature by including an Asian sample, further extending the conclusion to China mainland, suggesting that the general negative relationship between family functioning and delinquency may hold for different cultural contexts.
Positive behavior recognition serves as a mediating factor
Consistent with previous studies, our findings showed that family functioning was positively related to positive behavior recognition, and both were inversely associated with delinquency. These findings also supported Hypotheses 2 and 3. These results are consistent with those of other studies (38–40, 43, 67–69).
For the fourth research question, the overall findings also support our hypothesis that positive behavior recognition is a mediator predicting the effect of family functioning on delinquency.
According to the humanistic theory, human behavior and experiences are guided by one essential striving in life: the fundamental tendency to develop all capacities to enhance the person's functioning, thereby generating positive behavior (70). All urges, desires, wants, goals, values, and motives are subsumed under “organismic enhancement.” A person will become all that he or she can become with his or her potential fulfilled. According to Rogers, one interpersonal condition that leads to healthy development is unconditional positive regard, which is essential to healthy development. The absence of this condition may lead people to view themselves negatively. Human services professionals believe that giving people unconditional positive regard and acceptance provides the best possible conditions for personal growth (41). Good family functions, such as the harmonious relationship between parents, harmonious communication between parents and children, and family cohesion, are critical for adolescents to gain positive identity and unconditional acceptance (71).
Based on Rogers' Humanistic Perspective, adolescents in a well-functioning family environment receive a high level of parental concern and support, maintain good family mutuality, communication, and behavioral discipline, and are more likely to receive unconditional positive respect. Therefore, their good deeds are more likely to be recognized, activating their internal organizational enhancement and making positive behavioral identifications to increase prosocial behavior and reduce delinquency.
Overall, the findings suggest that family functioning enables adolescents to present more positive behavior recognition, leading to a lower delinquency level.
Based on the current results, cultivating inner strengths (such as positive behavior recognition) for Chinese adolescents is a promising strategy to promote adolescents' well-being and protect them from delinquency. In addition to adopting positive behavior recognition through good family functioning, instructors are also encouraged to inject the meaning of positive behavior during various activities throughout the program implementation in primary schools. Adolescents are an essential part of the urban population, and their physical and mental health is also the focus of the government, school, and family. This study also provides data on the adolescent population for urban population health research.
Strengths and limitations
This study adds to the few related studies in this area, particularly in the Chinese context. It is the first study to add theoretical and practical value to the existing literature by deepening our understanding of the mediating role of positive behavior recognition from a humanistic perspective. A second strength is that the present study also attempts to identify internal personal resources to protect adolescents from problem behaviors that would contribute to developing adolescent health programs. A third strength is that there are few related studies in Chinese contexts, so we recruited Chinese adolescents for the present study. A final strength is the large sample size.
A limitation of this study is the cross-sectional design. In order to conclude the causal relationship between the study variables, further prospective studies are needed. Second, as the present model is based on a large sample collected in Chengdu, mainland Chinese, the generalizability of the findings to adolescents in other Chinese cities remains unknown at this stage. Therefore, future studies should replicate these results to test our findings' generalizability. Third, the model fit is acceptable in the present study. However, there are specific percentages of unexplained variance in the model, which indicates that other potential variables should be included in the model to give a higher degree of prediction. Focus on other inner personal resources could be the future research topic.
Fourth, we collected the data through students' self-reporting, which might increase the likelihood of reporting bias. However, we chose self-administrated paper surveys and collected the questionnaires on the spot, which reduced this problem. In addition to including the reporting data from parents and teachers, future research could consider using methodological approaches, such as multidimensional item response theory and responder misclassification correction formulas (72, 73), to analyze the self-reported outcome bias.
Conclusions
Our survey methodology was feasible, understandable, and helpful in providing data on the prevalence of delinquency in Chinese adolescents. This study demonstrated that family functioning was a protective factor against adolescent delinquency and revealed that positive behavior recognition was a critical mediating mechanism linking family functioning to delinquency. The present findings represent a significant advance in the literature on family functioning and delinquency, particularly in the Chinese context.
Data availability statement
The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.
Ethics statement
The study protocol was approved by the Medical Ethics Committee of Sichuan University (K2020025). Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants' legal guardian/next of kin.
Author contributions
Conceptualization: XLW and LD. Formal analysis and data curation: SMJ. Investigation: ML and BXH. Funding acquisition, project administration, resources, and supervision: LZ. Writing—original draft: XLW. Writing—review and editing: WS and LD. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This study was funded by the Study of Diet and Nutrition Assessment and Intervention Technology from Active Health and Aging Technologic Solutions Major Project of National Key R&D Program, Grant Number 2020YFC2006300 and the International Institute of Spatial Lifecourse Epidemiology and Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Grant Number 19H0642.
Acknowledgments
We thank all participants especially Prof. Daniel T.L. Shek who made this study possible.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Publisher's note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
Supplementary material
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2022.985936/full#supplementary-material
References
1. Kashala E, Elgen I, Sommerfelt K, Tylleskar T. Teacher ratings of mental health among school children in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. (2005) 14:208–15. doi: 10.1007/s00787-005-0446-y
2. Sun RCF, Shek DTL. Life satisfaction, positive youth development, and problem behavior among Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong. Soc Indic Res. (2010) 95:455–74. doi: 10.1007/s11205-009-9531-9
3. Zhu XQ, Shek DTL. Predictive effect of positive youth development attributes on delinquency among adolescents in mainland China. Fron Psychol. (2020) 11:615900. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.615900
4. Shek DT, Zhu X. Paternal and maternal influence on delinquency among early adolescents in Hong Kong. Int J Environ Res Public Health. (2019) 16:1338. doi: 10.3390/ijerph16081338
5. Felson RB, Kreager DA. Group differences in delinquency: what is there to explain? Race Justice. (2015) 5:58–87. doi: 10.1177/2153368714546953
6. Shek DT, Lin L. What predicts adolescent delinquent behavior in Hong Kong? A longitudinal study of personal and family factors. Soc Indic Res. (2016) 129:1291–318. doi: 10.1007/s11205-015-1170-8
7. Jessor R, Turbin MS, Costa FM, Dong Q, Zhang H, Wang C. Adolescent problem behavior in China and the United States: a cross-national study of psychosocial protective factors. J Res Adolescence. (2003) 13:329–60. doi: 10.1111/1532-7795.1303004
8. Yang Y, Qi Y, Cui Y, Li B, Zhang Z, Zhou Y, et al. Emotional and behavioral problems, social competence and risk factors in 6–16-year-old students in Beijing, China. PLoS ONE. (2019) 14:e0223970. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0223970
9. Deng XQ Li C, Zhou YX. Statistical report on youth development in China (2020). Contemporary Youth Res. (2021) 1:26–32. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1006-1789.2021.01.004
10. Frick PJ, Viding E. Antisocial behavior from a developmental psychopathology perspective. Dev Psychopathol. (2009) 21:1111–31. doi: 10.1017/S0954579409990071
11. Moffitt TE. Adolescence-Limited and Life-Course-Persistent Antisocial Behavior: a Developmental Taxonomy. Routledge. (2017). doi: 10.4324/9781315096278-3
12. Rutter M, Maughan B, Meyer J, Pickles A, Silberg J, Simonoff E, et al. Heterogeneity of antisocial behavior: Causes, continuities, and consequences. In: Dienstbier R, Osgood DW, editors. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Motivation and Delinquency. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (1997). p. 44–118.
13. Jaspers M, de Winter AF, Huisman M, Verhulst FC, Ormel J, Stewart RE, et al. Trajectories of psychosocial problems in adolescents predicted by findings from early well-child assessments. J Adolesc Health. (2012) 51:475–83. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.02.007
14. Chen X, Huang X, Wang L, Chang L. Aggression, peer relationships, and depression in Chinese children: a multi-wave longitudinal study. J Child Psychol Psychiat. (2012) 53:1233–41. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02576.x
15. McDonough-Caplan H, Klein DN, Beauchaine TP. Comorbidity and continuity of depression and conduct problems from elementary school to adolescence. J Abnorm Psychol. (2018) 127:326. doi: 10.1037/abn0000339
16. Brook JS, Lee JY, Finch SJ, Brown EN, Brook DW. Long-term consequences of membership in trajectory groups of delinquent behavior in an urban sample: violence, drug use, interpersonal, and neighborhood attributes. Aggress Behav. (2013) 39:440–52. doi: 10.1002/ab.21493
17. Bradshaw CP, Schaeffer CM, Petras H, Ialongo N. Predicting negative life outcomes from early aggressive-disruptive behavior trajectories: Gender differences in maladaptation across life domains. J Youth Adolesc. (2010) 39:953–66. doi: 10.1007/s10964-009-9442-8
18. Snyder J, Bank L, Burraston B. The consequences of antisocial behavior in older male siblings for younger brothers and sisters. J Fam Psychol. (2005) 19:643. doi: 10.1037/0893-3200.19.4.643
19. Regoli RM, Hewitt JD, DeLisi M. Delinquency in Society. London: Jones & Bartlett Learning (2016).
20. Zeng XQ, Tan C. The relationship between the family functioning of individuals with drug addiction and relapse tendency: a moderated mediation model. Int J Environ Res Public Health. (2021) 18:25. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18020625
21. Miller IW, Ryan CE, Keitner GI, Bishop DS, Epstein NB. The McMaster approach to families: theory, assessment, treatment and research. J Fam Ther. (2000) 22:168–89. doi: 10.1111/1467-6427.00145
23. Larson RW, Richards MH, Moneta G, Holmbeck G, Duckett E. Changes in adolescents' daily interactions with their families from ages 10 to 18: Disengagement and transformation. Develop Psychology. (1996) 32:744. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.32.4.744
24. Deng LY, Fang XY Li YF, Wan JJ. Parental monitoring and adolescent problem behavior. J Appl Psychology. (2006) 12:305–11. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1006-6020.2006.04.003
25. Duan XY, Huang H. The influence of family function, parental monitoring, and self-control on juvenile delinquency. Chin J Behav Med Sci. (2006) 15:1033–34. doi: 10.3760/cma.j.issn.1674-6554.2006.11.03
26. Wang B, Tian L M, Dong XY. The relationship between family functioning and adolescents' negative risk-taking behavior: a moderated mediation model. Psychological Develop Educ. (2018) 2:146–54. doi: 10.16187/j.cnki.issn1001-4918.2018.02.03
27. Epstein NB, Baldwin LM, Bishop DS. The McMaster family assessment device. J Marital Fam Ther. (1983) 9:71–80. doi: 10.1111/j.1752-0606.1983.tb01497.x
28. Cummings EM, Koss KJ, Davies P T. Prospective relations between family conflict and adolescent maladjustment: security in the family system as a mediating process. J Abnorm Child Psychol. (2015) 43:503–15. doi: 10.1007/s10802-014-9926-1
29. Donahue KL, D'Onofrio BM, Bates JE, Lansford JE, Dodge KA, Pettit GS. Early exposure to parents' relationship instability: Implications for sexual behavior and depression in adolescence. J Adolesc Health. (2010) 47:547–54. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.04.004
30. Benson PL. All Kids Are Our Kids: What Communities Must Do to Raise Caring and Responsible Children and Adolescents. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass (2006).
31. Henderson CE, Dakof GA, Schwartz SJ, Liddle HA. Family functioning, self-concept, and severity of adolescent externalizing problems. J Child Fam Stud. (2006) 15:719–29. doi: 10.1007/s10826-006-9045-x
32. Farrington DP, Loeber R. Epidemiology of juvenile violence. Child Adol Psych Clin N Am. (2000) 9:733–48. doi: 10.1016/S1056-4993(18)30089-0
33. Pettit GS, Laird RD, Dodge KA, Bates JE, Criss MM. Antecedents and behavior-problem outcomes of parental monitoring and psychological control in early adolescence. Child Dev. (2001) 72:583–98. doi: 10.1111/1467-8624.00298
34. Xiong R, Li S, Xia Y. A longitudinal study of authoritative parenting, juvenile delinquency and crime victimization among Chinese adolescents. Int J Environ Res Public Health. (2020) 17:1405. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17041405
35. Liu TH De LS, Zhang X, Xia Y. The spillover mechanisms linking family conflicts and juvenile delinquency among Chinese adolescents. Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol. (2020) 64:167–86. doi: 10.1177/0306624X19842057
36. Cheng H C, Siu AM, Leung MC. Recognition for positive behavior as a positive youth development construct: conceptual bases and implications for curriculum development. Int J Adolesc Med Health. (2006) 18:467–73. doi: 10.1515/IJAMH.2006.18.3.467
37. Catalano RF, Berglund ML, Ryan JA, Lonczak HS, Hawkins JD. Positive youth development in the United States: research findings on evaluations of positive youth development programs. Ann Am Acad Polit Sci. (2004) 591:98–124. doi: 10.1177/0002716203260102
38. Schwartz SJ, Pantin H, Prado G, Sullivan S, Szapocznik J. Family functioning, identity, and problem behavior in Hispanic immigrant early adolescents. J Early Adolesc. (2005) 25:392–420. doi: 10.1177/0272431605279843
39. Meeus W, Iedema J, Maassen G, Engels R. Separation-individuation revisited: On the interplay of parent-adolescent relations, identity and emotional adjustment in adolescence. J Adolesc. (2005) 28:89–106. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2004.07.003
40. Meeus W, Oosterwegel A, Vollebergh W. Parental and peer attachment and identity development in adolescence. J Adolesc. (2002) 25:93–106. doi: 10.1006/jado.2001.0451
41. Law BMF, Siu AMH, Shek D L. Recognition for positive behavior as a critical youth development construct: conceptual bases and implications on youth service development. SciWorld J. (2012). doi: 10.1100/2012/809578
42. Teubert D, Pinquart M. The association between coparenting and child adjustment: a meta-analysis. Parent-Sci Pract. (2010) 10:286–307. doi: 10.1080/15295192.2010.492040
43. Shek DT, Siu AM, Lee TY, Cheng H, Tsang S, Chui YH, et al. development and validation of a positive youth development scale in Hong Kong. Int J Adolesc Med Health. (2006) 18:547–58. doi: 10.1515/IJAMH.2006.18.3.547
44. Damon W, Gregory A. Bringing in a New Era in the Field of Youth Development. Developmental Assets and Asset-Building Communities. Boston, MA: Springer (2003). p. 47–64.
45. Shek DT, Lin L. Delinquent behavior in high school students in Hong Kong: Sociodemographic, personal, and family determinants. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol. (2016) 29:S61–71. doi: 10.1016/j.jpag.2015.10.009
46. Shah KN, Hofmann MR, Schwarzkopf R, Pourmand D, Bhatia NN, Rafijah G, et al. Patient-reported outcome measures: how do digital tablets stack up to paper forms? A randomized, controlled study. Am J Orthop. (2016) 45:E451–7.
47. Sperle I, Nielsen S, Gassowski M, Naneva Z, Perchemlieva T, Amato-Gauci A, et al. Prevalence of hepatitis C in the adult population of Bulgaria: a pilot study. BMC Res Notes. (2020) 13:1–6. doi: 10.1186/s13104-020-05158-3
48. Shek DT, Ma CM S. The Chinese family assessment instrument (C-FAI) hierarchical confirmatory factor analyses and factorial invariance. Res Social Work Prac. (2010) 20:112–23. doi: 10.1177/1049731509355145
49. Liang KL, Hu SP, Li YX, Zou K, Hang XQ, Zhao L, et al. Analysis of family environment factors of non-suicidal NSSI among primary and middle school students. Mod Prev Med. (2021) 48:304–7.
50. Sun R C, Shek DT. Positive youth development, life satisfaction and problem behaviour among chinese adolescents in Hong Kong: a replication. Soc Indic Res. (2012) 105:541–59. doi: 10.1007/s11205-011-9786-9
51. Shek DT, Siu AM, Yan T. The Chinese positive youth development scale: a validation study. Res Social Work Prac. (2007) 17:380–91. doi: 10.1177/1049731506296196
52. Education and Manpower Bureau. Users' and Training Manual for Measuring Secondary Students' Performance in Affective and Social Domains. Hong Kong: Education and Manpower Bureau (2003).
53. Shek D T, Siu AM, Lee TY, Cheung CK, Chung R. Effectiveness of the Tier 1 Program of Project PATHS: objective outcome evaluation based on a randomized group trial. Scientific World J. (2008) 14:4–12. doi: 10.1100/tsw.2008.16
54. Huang C, Yuan Q, Ge M, Sheng X, Yang M, Shi S, et al. Childhood trauma and non-suicidal self-injury among chinese adolescents: the mediating role of psychological sub-health. Front Psychiatry. (2022) 13:798369. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.798369
55. MacCallum RC, Browne MW, Sugawara HM. Power analysis and determination of sample size for covariance structure modeling. Psychol Methods. (1996) 2:130–49. doi: 10.1037/1082-989X.1.2.130
56. Hooper D, Coughlan J, Mullen M. Structural equation modelling: guidelines for determining model fit. Electron J Bus Res Methods. (2008) 6:53–60. doi: 10.21427/D7CF7R
57. Law BM, Shek DT. A 6-year longitudinal study of self-harm and suicidal behaviors among Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol. (2016) 29:S38–48. doi: 10.1016/j.jpag.2015.10.007
58. Ma CM, Shek DT. Prevalence and psychosocial correlates of after-school activities among Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong. Front Public Health. (2014) 25:159. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2014.00159
59. Tillyer MS, Ray JV, Hinton ME. Protecting high-risk youth in high-risk contexts: Neighborhoods, parenting, and victimization. J Youth Adolesc. (2018) 47:2027–40. doi: 10.1007/s10964-018-0832-7
60. Feng L, Zhang L, Zhong H. Perceived parenting styles and mental health: the multiple mediation effect of perfectionism and altruistic behavior. Psychol Res Behav Manag. (2021) 14:1157–70. doi: 10.2147/PRBM.S318446
61. Brown BB, Larson J. Peer relationships in adolescence. In:Lerner RM, Steinberg L, editors. Handbook of Adolescent Psychology: Contextual Influences on Adolescent Development. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons (2009). p. 74–103.
62. Simons RL, Simons LG, Burt CH, Brody GH, Cutrona C. Collective efficacy, authoritative parenting, and delinquency: a longitudinal test of a model integrating community-and family-level processes. Criminology. (2005) 43:989–1029. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2005.00031.x
63. Steinberg L, Blatt-Eisengart I, Cauffman E. Patterns of competence and adjustment among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful homes: A replication in a sample of serious juvenile offenders. J Res Adolesc. (2006) 16:47–58. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2006.00119.x
64. Okorodudu GN. Influence of parenting styles on adolescent delinquency in delta central senatorial district. Edo J Counselling. (2010) 3:58–86. doi: 10.4314/ejc.v3i1.52682
65. Wright MF. Victimized children's adjustment difficulties: The role of parenting styles and parents' childhood peer victimization status. J Aggress Maltreat Trauma. (2017) 26:493–506. doi: 10.1080/10926771.2017.1304475
66. Stattin H, Kerr M. Parental monitoring: a reinterpretation. Child Dev. (2000) 71:1072–85. doi: 10.1111/1467-8624.00210
67. Du G, Lu HC. Potential variables of adolescents' future expectations and their relationship with Internet addiction. Chin J Sch. Health. (2018) 39:1835–7, 1840. doi: 10.16835/j.cnki.1000-9817.2018.12.020
68. Mullis RL, Brailsford J, Mullis AK. Relations between identity formation and family characteristics among young adults. J Fam Issues. (2003) 24:966–80. doi: 10.1177/0192513X03256156
69. Schwartz SJ, Côté JE, Arnett JJ. Identity and agency in emerging adulthood: Two developmental routes in the individualization process. Youth Soc. (2005) 37:201–29. doi: 10.1177/0044118X05275965
70. Carl R. Client-Centered Therapy: Its Current Practice, Implications and Theory. Boston: Houghton Mifflin (1951).
71. Alvarado M, Ricard RJ. Developmental assets and ethnic identity as predictors of thriving in his panic adolescents. Hispanic J Behav Sci. (2013) 35:510–23. doi: 10.1177/0739986313499006
72. Dowling NM, Bolt DM, Deng S, Li C. Measurement and control of bias in patient reported outcomes using multidimensional item response theory. BMC Med Res Method. (2016) 16:1–12. doi: 10.1186/s12874-016-0161-z
Keywords: Chinese adolescents, delinquency, family functioning, humanistic perspective, mediator, positive behavior
Citation: Wan X, Ji S, Liu M, Hong B, Shi W, Du L and Zhao L (2022) Family functioning and delinquency among Chinese adolescents: Mediating effects of positive behavior recognition according to the humanistic perspective. Front. Public Health 10:985936. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.985936
Received: 04 July 2022; Accepted: 12 September 2022;
Published: 29 September 2022.
Edited by:
Agnieszka Anna Olszewska-Guizzo, NeuroLandscape Foundation, PolandReviewed by:
Soraia Garcês, University of Madeira, PortugalAdam Charles Roberts, ETH Centre, Singapore
Copyright © 2022 Wan, Ji, Liu, Hong, Shi, Du and Zhao. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Liang Du, duliang@scu.edu.cn; Li Zhao, zhaoli@scu.edu.cn
†These authors have contributed equally to this work