AUTHOR=Desai Arpan S., Chauhan Veeren M., Johnston Angus P., Esler Tim , Aylott Jonathan W. TITLE=Fluorescent nanosensors for intracellular measurements: synthesis, characterization, calibration, and measurement JOURNAL=Frontiers in Physiology VOLUME=4 YEAR=2014 URL=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2013.00401 DOI=10.3389/fphys.2013.00401 ISSN=1664-042X ABSTRACT=

Measurement of intracellular acidification is important for understanding fundamental biological pathways as well as developing effective therapeutic strategies. Fluorescent pH nanosensors are an enabling technology for real-time monitoring of intracellular acidification. The physicochemical characteristics of nanosensors can be engineered to target specific cellular compartments and respond to external stimuli. Therefore, nanosensors represent a versatile approach for probing biological pathways inside cells. The fundamental components of nanosensors comprise a pH-sensitive fluorophore (signal transducer) and a pH-insensitive reference fluorophore (internal standard) immobilized in an inert non-toxic matrix. The inert matrix prevents interference of cellular components with the sensing elements as well as minimizing potentially harmful effects of some fluorophores on cell function. Fluorescent nanosensors are synthesized using standard laboratory equipment and are detectable by non-invasive widely accessible imaging techniques. The outcomes of studies employing this technology are dependent on reliable methodology for performing measurements. In particular, special consideration must be given to conditions for sensor calibration, uptake conditions and parameters for image analysis. We describe procedures for: (1) synthesis and characterization of polyacrylamide and silica based nanosensors, (2) nanosensor calibration and (3) performing measurements using fluorescence microscopy.