S. Tobias Johnson Fabian Grabenhorst ^*

• University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom

The successful pursuit of future rewards requires forming an internal goal, followed by planning, decision-making, and progress-tracking over multiple steps. The initial step—forming goals and the plans for obtaining them—involves the subjective valuation of an anticipated reward, considering both the reward’s properties and associated delay and physical-effort costs. Recent findings indicate individuals similarly evaluate cognitive effort over time (Johnson and Most, 2023). Success and failure in these processes have been linked to differential life outcomes and psychiatric conditions. Here we review evidence from single-neuron recordings and neuroimaging studies that implicate the amygdala—a brain structure long associated with cue-reactivity and emotion—in decision-making and the planned pursuit of future rewards (Grabenhorst et al., 2012, 2016, 2019, 2023; Hernadi et al., 2015; Zangemeister et al., 2016). The main findings are that, in behavioral tasks in which future rewards can be pursued through planning and stepwise decision-making, amygdala neurons prospectively encode the value of anticipated rewards and related behavioral plans. Moreover, amygdala neurons predict the stepwise choices to pursue these rewards, signal progress toward goals, and distinguish internally generated (i.e., self-determined) choices from externally imposed actions. Importantly, amygdala neurons integrate the subjective value of a future reward with delay and effort costs inherent in pursuing it. This neural evidence identifies three key computations of the primate amygdala that underlie the pursuit of future rewards: (1) forming a self-determined internal goal based on subjective reward-cost valuations, (2) defining a behavioral plan for obtaining the goal, (3) executing this plan through stepwise decision-making and progress-tracking. Based on this framework, we suggest that amygdala neurons constitute vulnerabilities for dysfunction that contribute to maladaptive reward pursuit in psychiatric and behavioral conditions. Consequently, amygdala neurons may also represent potential targets for behavioral-change interventions that aim to improve individual decision-making.