ORIGINAL RESEARCH article
Front. Microbiol.
Sec. Aquatic Microbiology
Volume 16 - 2025 | doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2025.1575789
This article is part of the Research TopicMitigating Microbial Contamination of Drinking Water SourcesView all 4 articles
Microbial Risks in Drinking Water Systems: Persistence and Public Health Implications of Opportunistic Premise Plumbing Pathogens
Provisionally accepted
Claire Hayward1,2*
Kirstin Ross1
Melissa Hackett Brown1
Richard Bentham1
Muhammad Atif Nisar1Jason Hinds1James Xi1
Harriet Whiley1- 1Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia
- 2University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
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The persistence of opportunistic premise plumbing pathogens (OPPPs) in drinking water plumbing systems poses a significant public health risk that is receiving increasing attention yet remains poorly understood. This study investigated the co-occurrence of OPPPs and the influence of building infrastructure properties on their prevalence. Drinking water and biofilm samples were collected opportunistically from hospitals and private residences across Australia to investigate the abiotic and biotic factors contributing to the growth and proliferation of OPPPs. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction assays were used to quantify target OPPPs. It was revealed that 41% of samples tested positive for Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 26% for Staphylococcus aureus, 26% for Legionella spp., 24% for Legionella pneumophila, and 14% for Acinetobacter baumannii. Furthermore, free-living amoebae, including Vermamoeba vermiformis (46%) and Acanthamoeba spp. (25%), were frequently detected, with Acanthamoeba spp. demonstrating a significant (p<0.05) positive correlation with all bacterial OPPPs. Overall, statistical analysis using correlation tests indicated a statistically higher prevalence (p<0.05) of OPPPs in residential properties and in biofilms. However, building characteristics, including stagnation, hot water system type, and building age, had inconsistent influences on individual OPPP prevalence. These results emphasize the need to incorporate risk assessments regarding the complex factors within the premise plumbing environment that contribute to pathogen persistence, to inform evidence based targeted preventative strategies for at-risk populations. Additionally, public health strategies should focus on improving healthcare-at-home practices to reduce the risk of exposure to OPPPs. These findings are particularly critical for individuals receiving healthcare at home, as inconsistent water treatment and monitoring in residential settings may increase their risk of exposure to OPPPs.
Keywords: opportunistic premise plumbing pathogens, Biofilms, Free living amoeba, Drinking Water, healthcare associated infections
Received: 12 Feb 2025; Accepted: 07 Apr 2025.
Copyright: © 2025 Hayward, Ross, Brown, Bentham, Nisar, Hinds, Xi and Whiley. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
* Correspondence: Claire Hayward, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia
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