Skip to main content

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Front. Microbiol.
Sec. Virology
Volume 15 - 2024 | doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1493561

Levamisole, as a Viral Vaccine Adjuvant, Induces Robust Host Defense Through the Modulation of Innate and Adaptive Immune Responses

Provisionally accepted
Gang Sik Kim Gang Sik Kim Dong Yun Kawk Dong Yun Kawk Hyeong Won Kim Hyeong Won Kim Seokwon Shin Seokwon Shin Mi-Kyeong Ko Mi-Kyeong Ko Seong Yun Hwang Seong Yun Hwang So Hui Park So Hui Park Dong Hyeon Kim Dong Hyeon Kim Jong-Hyeon Park Jong-Hyeon Park Su-Mi Kim Su-Mi Kim Min Ja Lee Min Ja Lee *
  • Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Republic of Korea

The final, formatted version of the article will be published soon.

    An effective vaccination policy must be implemented to prevent foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). However, the currently used vaccines for FMD have several limitations, including induction of humoral rather than cellular immune responses. To overcome these shortcomings, we assessed the efficacy of levamisole, a small-molecule immunomodulator, as an adjuvant for the FMD vaccine. We conducted in vitro studies using murine peritoneal exudate cells (PECs) and porcine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and in vivo studies using mice (experimental animals) and pigs (target animals). We evaluated levamisole-mediated modulation of the innate and adaptive immune responses; early, mid-term, and long-term immune-inducing effects; modes of action; and host defense against viral infection. Levamisole treatment promoted IFNγ secretion in murine PECs and porcine PBMCs. Additionally, it induced robust and long-lasting immune responses by eliciting high antibody titers and high virus-neutralizing antibody titers. By activating downstream signaling pathways of various pattern-recognition receptors, levamisole stimulated the expression of multiple cytokines and costimulatory molecules. Owing to these immunostimulatory effects, levamisole elicited host defense against viral infections in pigs. Our findings demonstrate the potential of levamisole as an immunostimulatory agent. The results also indicate that levamisole, as an adjuvant for animal vaccines, can elicit robust innate and adaptive immune responses, thereby enhancing host defense against viral infections. This study provides a promising approach for the development of improved FMD vaccine strategies in the future.

    Keywords: Levamisole, vaccine adjuvant, Host defense, Immunomodulation, innate and adaptive immunity

    Received: 09 Sep 2024; Accepted: 17 Dec 2024.

    Copyright: © 2024 Kim, Kawk, Kim, Shin, Ko, Hwang, Park, Kim, Park, Kim and Lee. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

    * Correspondence: Min Ja Lee, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Republic of Korea

    Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.