AUTHOR=Lafarge Maxime W. , Pluim Josien P. W. , Eppenhof Koen A. J. , Veta Mitko TITLE=Learning Domain-Invariant Representations of Histological Images JOURNAL=Frontiers in Medicine VOLUME=6 YEAR=2019 URL=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2019.00162 DOI=10.3389/fmed.2019.00162 ISSN=2296-858X ABSTRACT=

Histological images present high appearance variability due to inconsistent latent parameters related to the preparation and scanning procedure of histological slides, as well as the inherent biological variability of tissues. Machine-learning models are trained with images from a limited set of domains, and are expected to generalize to images from unseen domains. Methodological design choices have to be made in order to yield domain invariance and proper generalization. In digital pathology, standard approaches focus either on ad-hoc normalization of the latent parameters based on prior knowledge, such as staining normalization, or aim at anticipating new variations of these parameters via data augmentation. Since every histological image originates from a unique data distribution, we propose to consider every histological slide of the training data as a domain and investigated the alternative approach of domain-adversarial training to learn features that are invariant to this available domain information. We carried out a comparative analysis with staining normalization and data augmentation on two different tasks: generalization to images acquired in unseen pathology labs for mitosis detection and generalization to unseen organs for nuclei segmentation. We report that the utility of each method depends on the type of task and type of data variability present at training and test time. The proposed framework for domain-adversarial training is able to improve generalization performances on top of conventional methods.