An example of a field service plan for oceanographic submerged moorings

Oceanographic mooring missions are critical for advancing our understanding of the world’s oceans and their role in the broader Earth system. These missions rely on the deployment and maintenance of complex observing systems, comprising subsurface, profiling, and surface moorings, which are designed to collect valuable data from the ocean interior. The success of these missions depends on meticulous planning and strategic execution, which are facilitated by the use of Field Service Plans (FSPs). FSPs are comprehensive and adaptable planning tools that integrate safety measures, contingency plans, and timelines to ensure the successful and safe recovery, maintenance, and deployment of mooring systems. In this paper, we provide a comprehensive guide to drafting, implementing, and adapting FSPs tailored to the unique challenges posed by oceanographic mooring missions. We highlight the critical role of FSPs in optimizing safety, data quality, and mission success, while also underscoring the need for flexibility and adaptation. Our aim is to provide practical guidance and a template for researchers, expedition leaders, and institutions engaged in oceanographic research.

1 Introduction

Oceanographic research makes extensive use of observing system networks, which allow for the collection of valuable data from the ocean interior. This is crucial for gaining deeper insights into the dynamic interactions between the ocean and the Earth’s climate system. Oceanographic moorings, which can be subsurface, profiling, or surface-based, have become instrumental platforms for sustained ocean observations at fixed stations (Tanhua et al., 2019).

The deployment and maintenance of these moorings are essential for climate change research. Scientists recognize the importance of long-term data records for an accurate characterization of complex interactions. Sustained time-series records are the most effective observational tool, for not only identifying but also understanding global change and its impacts (Send et al., 2010). However, the deployment and maintenance of oceanographic moorings integrate multiple complex challenges. These challenges span from the harsh environmental conditions of the open sea, characterized by turbulent seas and adverse weather, to the need for careful data handling and quality control, ensuring the integrity of the scientific dataset.

The Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) is a collaborative initiative that includes various networks like OceanSITES. These networks collect, deliver, and promote the use of high-quality data from long-term, high-frequency observations in the open ocean (IOC, 2019). OceanSITES makes ocean observations at fixed locations in the open ocean, covering a wide range of essential ocean variables and disciplines (Send et al., 2010; Weller et al., 2019). The high temporal resolution sampling of these measurements allow for the detection of rapid processes and events, providing extensive observations from the sea surface to the seafloor. This breadth of data is particularly advantageous in locations where monitoring with mobile platforms is difficult or impractical, such as straits, passages, and boundary currents. OceanSITES relies on best practices (e.g. Coppola et al., 2016, and Venkatesan et al., 2018), that are published in the Ocean Best Practices System Repository (OBPS-R), an open access, permanent, digital repository of community best practices in ocean-related sciences and applications maintained by the International Oceanographic Data and Information Exchange (IODE) of the UNESCO-IOC as an IOC (IODE, GOOS) coordinated activity. Along with other observational platforms – such as profiles and gliders – measurements from moorings serve several valuable purposes, such as assessing the performance of satellite and floats, validating numerical models, accommodating diverse sensors, contributing to ongoing innovation in observational technology.

The Istituto di Scienze Marine (ISMAR) of the Italian Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR) has nearly four decades of experience in maintaining deep submerged moorings across the Mediterranean Sea (Ligurian Sea, Sicily Channel, Tyrrhenian Sea, Ionian Sea, Adriatic Sea, for an overview see Ravaioli et al., 2016). Since 1993, CNR-ISMAR has maintained two moorings in the Sicily Channel (Schroeder et al., 2017). The successful, regular maintenance of these moorings – central to our oceanographic missions – has relied on Field Service Plans (FSPs), which are methodically constructed roadmaps for field operations.

While CNR-ISMAR’s FSP have proven effective for us over the past three decades of hands-on experience, it is important to recognize that other oceanographic institutes have also developed their own systems, tailored over years of practical experience. These systems, which may be equally suitable, reflect the diverse approaches and methodologies adopted globally. The primary aim of this paper is to formalize and disseminate CNR-ISMAR’s FSP as a comprehensive resource for the oceanographic community. By detailing the main components of our FSP and their synergistic interactions, we seek to highlight the importance of careful planning in optimizing field service operations, ensuring safety, and maximizing scientific output. This document is intended to complement, not to replace, the variety of effective systems already in place globally, fostering collaboration and shared learning within the field.

2 A brief overview of fixed open ocean platforms and moorings

Fixed-site open ocean platforms and moorings are crucial for collecting data across the ocean-atmosphere interface, coastal areas, the seabed, and the ocean’s interior. With the integration of advanced sensors and data transmission devices, these moorings measure a wide array of parameters, from physical to biogeochemical, biological, and sedimentological.

The configuration of these platforms is determined by the physical processes under study, the environmental constraints of the deployment area, and the monitoring project’s duration. Traditional seafloor-anchored mooring lines (surface, subsurface or with profiling elements), seabed platforms, buoys, and cabled observatories each offer unique observational strengths and can be deployed individually or in arrays to augment regional monitoring capabilities.

Despite their benefits, these systems face challenges such as high installation, operation, maintenance, and data management costs. These can be mitigated by frequent data transmission, extending operational lifetimes without servicing, and reusing and refurbishing components. Engineering advances are also reducing costs with improved power systems, sensors, and more durable materials (Meindl, 1996).

To ensure clarity throughout this manuscript, we define the following terms: “subsurface mooring”, a system anchored to the seabed with floats and acoustic releases, with no surface element; “surface mooring”, as the previous, but with a surface element; “profiling mooring”, as the previous, but equipped with a profiling element; “seabed platform”, a standalone unit for continuous high-resolution seabed data acquisition; “oceanographic buoy”, a floating structure anchored to the seabed, equipped with oceanographic and meteorological instruments; “cabled observatory”, a seabed platform linked to onshore facilities via a cable for near real-time data access. For the scope of this paper, in the following we will use the term “mooring” or “oceanographic mooring” to indicate surface or subsurface moorings. These consist of connected rope segments with instruments for self-recording or real-time data transmission. In the following section, we detail the components of “subsurface moorings” since this is the mooring type maintained by CNR-ISMAR.

2.1 Subsurface mooring components

The primary components of an oceanographic subsurface mooring system are anchors, floating devices, acoustic releases and rope segments, onto which a multitude of various sensors can be mounted at pre-defined depths. Careful sizing of the anchor, selection of rope materials, and integration of release systems are essential considerations in mooring design and deployment. Anchors are typically heavy materials like railroad wheels or concrete blocks and are the expendable elements of a mooring (i.e., they will not be recovered after each deployment period). Ropes are usually synthetic fibers or nylon, forming the structural backbone to which the sensors and floating devices are attached. These rope segments are linked through shackles, rings, and swivels to form a continuous line, potentially terminating with a thimble at each end. In order to provide the buoyancy needed to counterbalance the weight of instruments and other components, spherical floatation devices are used, which are often made of synthetic foam or glass covered with protective plastic. These can be interspersed between segments of the mooring line or mounted directly on the rope, in a way that best facilitates the recovery process. Given that at predefined time intervals the mooring systems need to be serviced (recovery, cleaning, inspection, data retrieval, battery change, components replacements, and re-deployment), a release system is needed. For this an acoustic transponder is mounted between the anchor and the rope, which can be activated by a unique acoustic signal, allowing the controlled release of the mooring. Multiple releasers, configured in tandem, enhance the probability of successful recovery (Coppola et al., 2016).

2.2 The SiCO observatory

The SiCO observatory, established in 1993 by CNR-ISMAR, is a twin-mooring system located in the Sicily Channel, a strategic point connecting the Eastern and Western Mediterranean Sea. It consists of two subsurface moorings aligned in parallel trenches across a 150 km transect between Tunisia and Sicily. These moorings, which are part of the HYDROCHANGES and OceanSITES observing networks, have been regularly serviced every six months since their inception. SiCO represents one of the longest-running Mediterranean time series, tasked with monitoring thermohaline properties and water mass exchanges. It is equipped with current profilers and CTD probes (Table 1).

Table 1

Table 1. Variables measured and depths of the measurements.

Through its deployment, SiCO has enabled the detailed monitoring of the Intermediate Water’s (IW) thermohaline properties, revealing significant temperature and salinity trends (Figure 1) that surpass those at similar depths in the global ocean by at least an order of magnitude (Schroeder et al., 2017). The primary objective of SiCO is to explore the causes behind these observed trends, and in particular the role of a changing climate over the Mediterranean. The observatory’s long-term data reveals how fast the response to climate change can be in a marginal seas compared to the global ocean. This demonstrates also the indispensable role of long time series in the ocean.

Figure 1

Figure 1. (A) The Mediterranean Sea with circulation schemes for Atlantic Water (AW, light blue arrow) and the Intermediate Water (IW, red arrow), black rectangle indicates the monitored area; (B) zoom on the Sicily Channel with the positions of the two moorings (red diamonds), that intercept both branches of the bifurcated IW flow (red arrow); (C) vertical schematic section of the Tunisia - Sicily transect [black line in (B)], showing the two-layer system of water masses flowing in opposite directions (AW eastward; IW westward) and the positions of instruments on the moorings; time series of (D) temperature and (E) salinity at 400 m depth (mooring SiC02) (updated from Schroeder et al., 2017).

In this context, the SiCO observatory serves as an exemplary model for showcasing the practical application of an FSP.

3 The field service plan

The recovery, maintenance and deployment of oceanographic moorings are activities characterized by complexity, challenges, and inherent risks, demanding precise planning and execution. While existing handbooks (Coppola et al., 2016) offer comprehensive guidelines and best practices for data collection across the entire infrastructural chain, our focus lies specifically on the strategic planning and operational procedures inherent to mooring operations. The design that at CNR-ISMAR guides these operations and ensures their careful planning and execution is the Field Service Plan (FSP). This section highlights the significance of the FSP in our oceanographic mooring missions and the multiple benefits of a well-structured FSP.

3.1 The role of a FSP

There are a number of aspects that make the FSP essential for a successful managing strategy, going from its operational efficiency, the adoption of safety protocols, the allocation of resources, the integrity of the collected data, the compliance assurance. In particular, the FSP may serve as a roadmap, delineating each phase of a mooring management operation, by providing clarity of purpose and ensuring that every task is executed with precision, minimizing operational inefficiencies and errors.

Safety is paramount in oceanographic expeditions, thus the FSP also includes safety measures and contingency plans into every aspect of the operation, contributing itself to fostering a culture of safety among scientific personnel and crew. In order to ensure the collection of high-quality scientific data, the FSP outlines data management and quality control protocols, safeguarding data integrity. Finally, given that oceanographic mooring operations are subject to a multitude of regulations and permits, the FSP also ensures that all legal and regulatory obligations are met, mitigating the risk of operational disruptions and regulatory non-compliance.

Thus, a well-structured FSP yields multiple benefits throughout the entire lifecycle of a mooring management. By means of a rigorous planning, the FSP helps in organizing operations, optimizing resource utilization and minimizing downtime, guaranteeing operation efficiency at the same time. This efficiency ultimately results in cost savings, contingency preparedness, high-quality data, as well as maximized scientific productivity. For a mooring management team, the FSP is the basis to ensure the successful and efficient execution of oceanographic mooring operations.

It is important to stress that before going at sea, or during a first briefing on board of the vessel, the FSP should be illustrated to all scientific and technical people on board, defining the role of each person involved in the operations. Indeed, when the recovery/deployment operations start, there is no more time to explain what to do to not expert people, especially if the operations are done during rough sea conditions.

Finally, to ensure the collection of high-quality data from oceanographic moorings, it is essential to adhere to minimum sampling standards. These standards include sensor accuracy, precision, and sampling frequency, which are critical for capturing the dynamic processes of the ocean. Sensor accuracy refers to the degree to which a measured value reflects the true value, while precision indicates the consistency of repeated measurements. Sampling frequency must be carefully considered based on the specific oceanographic processes being studied; higher frequency sampling may be necessary for rapidly changing conditions, whereas lower frequency may suffice for more stable environments. Furthermore, in developing and put into practice a FSP for oceanographic moorings, it is important to align with established oceanographic best practices and guidelines (for instance the Ocean Best Practices System, or OBPS, backed by the IOC through IODE and GOOS).

3.2 Components of a FSP

The FSP is composed by multiple crucial components that collectively ensure the success of oceanographic mooring operations. Each component listed below is instrumental in organizing and executing the mission effectively. They will be further detailed in the full FSP example provided in section 4.

- Equipment lists and mooring diagrams

- Safety measures and contingency plans

- Stakeholder communication

- Timeline

- Pre-cruise activities

- Recovery procedures

- Maintenance operations

- Deployment procedures

- Data handling and quality control

- Data archiving and reporting

- Post-cruise analysis and scientific reporting

These components collectively form a robust framework for mooring operations, ensuring that safety, data quality, and mission objectives are met efficiently and responsibly. A detailed example for each component is aimed at provide practical guidance for mission planning and execution.

4 Example of a field service plan

4.1 Review and approval

The FSP is subject to thorough review and approval by all pertinent stakeholders to ensure alignment and consensus before its implementation begins. This collaborative process guarantees that the plan reflects the collective expectations and requirements of all involved parties.

4.2 Objectives and scope

4.2.1 Objectives of the field service plan

1. Ensure long-term monitoring: The primary objective of the FSP is to facilitate the long-term monitoring of marine circulation between the Eastern and Western Mediterranean through the SiCO mooring system.

2. Maintenance and instrument integrity: The FSP aims to ensure the continued functionality and integrity of the SiCO mooring system, including currentmeters (ADCPs, i.e. Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers) and multiparametric probes (CTD, i.e. Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth, + dissolved oxygen).

3. Data collection and quality: To collect high-quality oceanographic data, including vertical current profiles and hydrological parameters, which are essential for ongoing scientific research.

4. Compliance with oceanographic standards: The FSP is designed to ensure that data collection, handling, and reporting adhere to established oceanographic standards and best practices (including instrument calibration protocols, quality control procedures, metadata documentation, data formats, user requirements for data accessibility, adherence to international data exchange formats and conventions, oceanographic naming vocabularies, etc.).

4.2.2 Scope of the field service plan

1. Type of moorings: The FSP covers the maintenance and operation of two subsurface moorings within the SiCO system, located at a depth of approximately 400 meters in the Sicily Channel.

2. Data to be collected: The FSP encompasses the collection of oceanographic data, including but not limited to:

● Vertical profiles of current data using Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCP).

● Continuous measurement of hydrological parameters (Conductivity, Temperature, Depth, Oxygen) through high-precision CTD probes.

● Other relevant oceanographic parameters as deemed necessary for scientific research and monitoring.

3. Geographic area of operation: The geographic scope of the FSP includes the waters of the Sicily Channel, specifically between Sicily and Tunisia. The moorings are situated in Tunisian waters (SiCO1: 37.380°N; 11.591°E and SiCO2: 37.285°N).

4. Monitoring duration: The FSP is designed for long-term monitoring, reflecting the SiCO mooring system’s history of over 30 years of continuous operation with minimal interruptions.

5. Data transmission: Acknowledging that real-time data transmission is not available due to the absence of surface buoys, the FSP includes procedures for periodic data retrieval, quality control, and semi-annual data submission to designated Global Data Assembly Centers (GDACs).

4.3 List of equipment and mooring diagram

A comprehensive list of equipment and a detailed mooring diagram is provided to guide the deployment and maintenance operations. The equipment list is a table comprising the information on the sensor type, the manufacturer, the nominal depth of installation, the serial number, the age, the last calibration date, the last battery replacement and expected battery expiration date, and any other relevant note. The mooring diagram (Figure 2A) illustrates the layout and configuration of the mooring system, indicating the placement of each component, including anchors (weight, depth), ropes (length of the segments), sensors (type, serial number, nominal depth), and floatation devices (depth, type). The diagram also clearly depict the connection points between different segments of the mooring line, highlighting the arrangement of it specifies the depths at which each component will be connected to the rope, ensuring a clear understanding of the mooring’s vertical scheme, and it clearly indicates the spatial orientation of instruments in relation to the sea floor (this is relevant for current profilers, which can be mounted upward- or downward-looking). By providing a detailed equipment list and mooring diagram, the FSP ensures a systematic and well-organized approach to mooring operations.

Figure 2

Figure 2. (A) Example showing which information should be contained in a mooring diagram; (B) visual timeline to follow for oceanographic mooring operations.

4.4 Stakeholders

Effective communication and coordination among all stakeholders involved in the mooring operations (Table 2) are essential to achieve the objectives of the FSP and contribute to oceanographic research.

Table 2

Table 2. List of all stakeholders involved in the mooring operation and management, their role and responsibilities.

4.5 Timeline

Effective planning and execution of mooring operations within the FSP for SiCO require a well-defined timeline. This timeline consist of key milestones (Table 3), from pre-deployment planning to post-cruise data analysis, ensuring a structured and organized approach to the entire mooring operation (Figure 2B).

Table 3

Table 3. Timeline outlining the start and end dates for each phase of the mooring operation.

By following this timeline, mooring operations within the FSP are systematically organized, ensuring that each phase is executed with precision and efficiency. This structured approach enhances the overall success of the mooring operation and contributes to the long-term monitoring of marine circulation in the Sicily Channel.

4.6 Pre-cruise planning

The success of the SiCO mooring system’s deployment begins with a thorough pre-cruise planning phase. This phase encompasses a range of activities and tasks that must be completed before the actual deployment of the mooring system. These preparations ensure the safe, efficient, and effective execution of the whole mooring system recovery, maintenance and re-deployment. The operations and steps outlined in Table 4 are undertaken during this phase. Some of them need to be performed only at the start of a long-term mission, such as the mooring design and assembly operations or the definition of the data management and quality control procedures.

Table 4

Table 4. Key operations of the pre-cruise planning phase, their division into steps and the respective descriptions, along with key persons in charge.

4.7 Recovery Procedures

The recovery of the SiCO mooring system marks the conclusion of a deployment period, typically 6 months long. This section details the procedures involved in safely and effectively recovering the mooring (Table 5), ensuring the retrieval of data and the integrity of instruments.

Table 5

Table 5. Key operations of the recovery phase, their division into steps and the respective descriptions, along with key persons in charge.

By following these recovery procedures, the SiCO mooring system is retrieved safely, and valuable data collected during the deployment period are preserved for analysis, contributing to the scientific research in the Sicily Channel.

4.8 Post-recovery on-board operations

The on-board operations, after the recovery of all mooring components (with the exception of the anchors), including maintenance operations, are essential to ensure the continued functionality and reliability of the mooring and its associated sensors and instruments. This section outlines the specific activities that will be conducted during the post-recovery on-board operation phase (Table 6), and before the mooring system is re-deployed to start a new 6-monthly deployment period.

Table 6

Table 6. Key operations of the post-recovery on board operations phase, their division into steps and the respective descriptions, along with key persons in charge.

4.9 Deployment procedures

The deployment of the SiCO mooring system is a critical phase in the FSP. This section outlines the step-by-step procedures involved in mooring deployment (Table 7), which is done after recovery and on-board maintenance operations, with the aim to start a new 6-months period of monitoring.

Table 7

Table 7. Key operations of the deployment phase, their division into steps and the respective descriptions, along with key persons in charge.

4.10 Data handling and quality control

Effective data handling and quality control (Table 8) are integral to the success of the SiCO mooring system’s field service. This section outlines the protocols and procedures in place to ensure the integrity, accuracy, and reliability of collected data throughout the deployment period.

Table 8

Table 8. Key operations of the data handling and quality control phase, their division into steps and the respective descriptions, along with key persons in charge.

4.11 Data archiving and reporting

Effective data archiving, management, and reporting (Table 9) are crucial aspects of the SiCO mooring system’s field service. This section outlines the procedures and protocols for archiving and reporting data collected during the deployment period, ensuring accessibility, transparency, and the availability of data for scientific research and analysis.

Table 9

Table 9. Key operations of the data archiving and reporting phase, their division into steps and the respective descriptions, along with key persons in charge.

4.12 Post-cruise analysis and scientific reporting

Post-cruise data analysis and scientific reporting (Table 10) ensures data validation, and integrating collected data into the overall dataset for scientific research and reporting.

Table 10

Table 10. Key operations of the post-cruise data analysis and scientific reporting phase, their division into steps and the respective descriptions, along with key persons in charge.

4.13 Safety measures

Safety (Table 11) is of paramount importance throughout the field service of the SiCO mooring system. Comprehensive safety protocols and measures are in place to protect the well-being of all personnel involved, ensure the safety of the vessel crew, and safeguard equipment and the environment.

Table 11

Table 11. Key operations of the safety measures, their division into steps and the respective descriptions, along with key persons in charge.

These safety measures are integral to the SiCO mooring system’s field service operations, ensuring that the well-being of personnel and the protection of equipment and the environment are prioritized at all times. Strict safety protocols and fostering a safety-conscious culture ensures that the field service is conducted with the highest standards of safety and professionalism.

4.14 Contingency plans

Contingency plans (Table 12) are essential for anticipating and responding to unforeseen circumstances that may arise during the field service of the SiCO mooring system. These plans outline response procedures and considerations for addressing equipment malfunctions, adverse weather conditions, and emergency situations to ensure the safety of personnel and the success of the mission.

Table 12

Table 12. List of circumstances requiring contingency planning, associated response procedures, along with key persons in charge.

By developing and following these contingency plans, the SiCO mooring system’s operations are better prepared to address unforeseen challenges while prioritizing the safety of personnel and the protection of data, equipment and the environment. These plans ensure a flexible and adaptive approach to field service operations while maintaining the highest standards of safety and professionalism.

4.15 Stakeholder communication

Effective communication with stakeholders (Table 13) is essential to ensure a successful field service operation and to keep all parties informed and engaged throughout the process. This section outlines the communication protocols for stakeholders, including regular updates, reporting of issues, and post-service debriefings.

Table 13

Table 13. Key operations of the communication with stakeholders, their division into steps and the respective descriptions, along with key persons in charge.

Effective stakeholder communication fosters transparency, trust, and collaboration among all parties involved in the mooring system field service. These communication protocols ensure that stakeholders are well-informed, engaged, and actively contribute to the success of the project.

4.16 Documentation

Comprehensive documentation of the FSP is diligently maintained throughout the project’s lifecycle. This documentation encompasses all revisions, reports, and any deviations from the plan that may occur during field operations. These records provide a historical record of the project’s evolution, ensuring transparency, accountability, and a valuable resource for future planning and analysis.

5 Discussion and conclusion

Oceanographic mooring operations are vital for advancing our understanding of the oceans, and their success is strongly centered around thorough planning and execution. This paper describes Field Service Plans (FSPs) in detail, highlighting their role in determining the outcomes of these missions. While we emphasize the FSP’s essential components, we also stress the need for FSPs to evolve alongside scientific progress, technological advancements, and environmental dynamics. The FSP’s timeline component provides structure to mission planning, streamlining operations, optimizing resource utilization, and minimizing downtime. Through the integration of safety protocols and contingency plans, FSPs foster a culture of safety among field personnel and crew, enhancing the well-being of all involved and mitigating the potential risks inherent to the open sea.

The FSP is designed as a useful guideline for the planning and execution of mooring operations, being a comprehensive strategy that ensures the reliability of data, and the success of missions in the marine environment. From the initial planning stages to post-cruise data analysis and scientific reporting, a well-structured FSP serves as a roadmap, ensuring that each step is executed with precision and purpose.

There are also a number of challenges in implementing FSPs. These include ensuring consistent adherence, incorporating evolving technology, enhancing interdisciplinary collaboration, and navigating budget constraints. Implementing an FSP across a diverse team of researchers and technicians can be challenging. To address this, it is useful to consider implementing training programs and workshops that familiarize team members with the FSP’s key components and emphasize its importance. Regular checks during field operations can help ensure that the FSP is being followed consistently, but also to ensure that the FSP is still up-to-date. As technology in oceanographic moorings evolves, FSPs may need to be updated. It could be useful to establish a protocol for technology integration within the FSP, like including a periodic review process to assess the compatibility of new technologies with the existing FSP framework. Finally, recognizing that budget constraints can limit the resources available for implementing the FSP, we advocate for a flexible budgeting approach. This includes the potential for collaboration with other research institutions and leveraging shared resources to optimize budget utilization, ensuring that the FSP can adapt to varying financial circumstances and maintain its effectiveness.

In essence, the challenges we encounter in implementing FSPs make it clear that these documents should not be set in stone but rather treated as living, evolving tools. The ever-changing nature of scientific research, technology, regulations, and environmental conditions demands that FSPs remain adaptable and responsive to new challenges and opportunities.

Each mooring system is unique, shaped by the demands of the scientific questions it seeks to answer and the environmental challenges it faces. This diversity underscores the need for adaptable and flexible planning tools. Our aim in sharing our FSP is to offer a starting point for a dialogue and a comparison with other systems, encouraging a collective advancement in the field.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

KS: Conceptualization, Supervision, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. MB: Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Writing – review & editing.

Funding

The author(s) declare financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. The authors wish to acknowledge the fundings received through many national and European Projects (e.g. KM3NeT, EU GA #011937; SESAME, EU GA #GOCE-036949; PERSEUS, EU GA #287600; OCEAN-CERTAIN, EU GA #603773; COMMON SENSE, EU GA #228344; JERICO, EU GA #262584; JERICO-NEXT, EU GA #654410; JERICO S3, EU GA #871153; the Italian projects EMSO-Italia JRU and RITMARE, funded by the Italian Ministry of University and Research. This work was funded by the European Union under grant agreement no. 101094690 (EuroGO-SHIP).

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge the collaboration and support received over many years of mooring operations in the Sicily Channel, by captains of Italian Research Vessels, their crew members, many colleagues and directors of CNR-ISMAR. The authors also acknowledge the HYDROCHANGES Programme of the Mediterranean Science Commission (CIESM) and the OceanSITES network (GOOS). Servicing has been done on board of the Italian R/Vs URANIA, MINERVA UNO, DALLAPORTA and GAIA BLU. The authors are deeply indebted to M. Astraldi and G.P. Gasparini, who initiated the mooring time series in the nineties, as well as to the captains and the crews for allowing the collection of these data.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

The author(s) declared that they were an editorial board member of Frontiers, at the time of submission. This had no impact on the peer review process and the final decision.

Publisher’s note

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