Bronwyn Hoffmann
Uwe Napiersky1
Carl Senior- 1Aston Business School, Aston University, Birmingham, United Kingdom
- 2School of Psychology, Aston University, Birmingham, United Kingdom
Auditory social cognition: paradox
Despite a considerable body of research dedicated to the understanding of the neural systems that underpin our ability to process speech – there is relatively scant attention given to the way sound, our evolutionary attentional system, navigates our daily interactions alerting us to potential environmental danger (Horowitz, 2012). From a neuroanatomical perspective the importance of auditory information is proposed by the auditory modality's extensive temporal lobe networking with the prefrontal cortex; suggesting more representation in the prefrontal cortex than any other sensory modality (Medalla and Barbas, 2014). Indeed, the bizarre behavioral manifestations of Paul Broca's unfortunate patient “Tan” and the subsequent discovery of a small region in the inferior frontal gyrus focused considerable research attention on the neural systems involved in the production of speech (Mohammed et al., 2018). However, comparatively little focus has been given over to the neurophysiological systems that are involved in understanding speech in general and speech that drives complex social behavior specifically and more so how the two processes interact.
That said there is interplay between the frontal regions with Broca's area and the more anterior aspects of the fronto-polar regions (e.g., Brodmann's area 10). Indeed, described as the main frontal “auditory field” the auditory input and output patterns detected in this region, suggest that the connection of auditory association cortex to the frontopolar cortex underlie the complex cognitive processes of self-reflection, prospection and forging future decisions (Medalla and Barbas, 2014). When one considers the possible neural systems that may drive the interpretation of complex and self-reflective conversation the extent of our knowledge could be conceptualized as a “listening loop” consisting of the ear (the cochlea), the primary auditory cortex and the frontotemporal regions (e.g., McAlpine and de Hoz, 2023). The paucity of our understanding is further realized when one considers the relative superficiality of the type of conversation that has been studied to date.
One only has to stop and listen to the everyday conversation to instantly realize that the speech uttered on a daily basis is very rarely the same speech that is tested in the cognitive neuroscientific laboratories around the world. Take for example the extent to which a child's speech development is scaffolded with daily exposure to a parent's interactional voice cues or “motherese” (Dodane, 2022). Here there is a direct relationship with the way that speech is processed and subsequent brain development (Nencheva and Lew-Williams, 2022). A process that is so complex that begins in utero and may also have an epigenetic foundation (Kisilevsky et al., 2003). Such complexity is relatively minor compared to the everyday occurrence of speech that considers the nuanced idiosyncrasies of idiolects and dialects, environmental noise as well as higher level cognitions such as the processing of metaphor etc. (e.g., Li and Zhang, 2023). In the evolution of language, Fitch (2010) illustrates how even slight differences in intonations may impact the nature of a question in conversation. Mastering the art of sound, such as tones, presents a powerful tool in building rapport, delivering impactful questions successfully traversing our complex social lives. One way to explore the cognitive neuroscience of complex auditory processing may be with the study of executive coaching which by its nature prompts a social dyad to both produce and perceive complex, higher level and reflective speech (Britten, 2015).
What is executive coaching?
The terms executive coaching, leadership coaching, business coaching, workplace coaching, or organizational coaching are often used interchangeably (e.g., Theeboom et al., 2014; Blackman et al., 2016). We use the term executive coaching for this paper, a developmental intervention with an emphasis on helping the client learn for themselves, both personally and professionally (Athanasopoulou and Dopson, 2018). Originating in the field of sport and business, coaching's exponential growth has extended to include the fields of education and medicine (de Haan and Nilsson, 2023). Unique to coaching, is a cognitive process that is multi-layered, recursive and reflective wherein thoughts, feelings and actions are explored within a social dyad through the spoken word.
The coaching process is a unique testbed to explore the complexity of language in initiating reflective cognition. In support Darics (2019) advances linguistic awareness of subtle nuances during conversation to prompt self-reflexive management practice. In coaching, both the coach and coachee, explore core functions of the shared language network. Neuroimaging has started to elucidate the cortical systems that mediate executive coaching (Boyatzis and Jack, 2018), with the so-called “default mode network” consisting of regions such as the medial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate cortex as well as the angular gyrus to be implicated in some of the core coaching processes. This is perhaps to be expected when one considers that this network is often implicated with introspective processes (Medalla and Barbas, 2014). However, when one delves a little further and attempts to map the key outcomes of the coaching process to a cortical system this relationship starts to become more complex.
Additional insights on the generation of creativity/insight that may occur during a coaching session can be gained with the study of non-directive coaching (Bartolome et al., 2022). Non-directive coaching (NDC), is a client-centered conversation oriented to reflection, wherein the coach mainly observes and listens to the client speaking, mirroring what the client says, and asking open ended questions, enhancing the client's own potential for reflection (Bartolome et al., 2022). When considering the neurophysiological signature of NDC, significant activation in networks of the right parieto-temporal region occurred during the generation of (creative) insights (Bartolome et al., 2022).
Auditory cognition and speech's social relevance: listening partners in coaching discovery
Support for the primacy of the auditory domain during executive coaching is underscored by Kluger and Itzchakov (2022) Episodic Listening Theory, in which listening induces a mutual state of creative thinking shared by dyad members. Kluger and Mizrahi (2023), recognizing excellent listening in phone conversation, propose listening be defined by dyad members' unobservable acts of devotion to each other to co-creatively explore the other. Hinz et al. (2022) echo the importance of relationships in listening, describing how knowledge is co-created during the conversational process of speaking-and-listening with others. The aforementioned findings appear to concur with what McLaughlin (2013) refers to as “the power of the aural connection” to deepen the learning process between coach and coachee during telephone coaching. Indeed, Bailenson (2021) points out, telephonic communication (auditory) has been integral in social connection for decades.
Human language and speech, is the most important medium to engage socially (Scott, 2019). According to Horowitz (2012), based on our evolutionary biology, even disparate languages, share common components of sound production, such as phonemes, morphemes and structure of words. This might explain that coaching in a second language is possible and has fewer disadvantages than expected for the coaching experience and its outcomes (Cox, 2012; de Haan, 2019). Lynden and Avery (2016) note how verbal tone, pitch and pace are crucial for building rapport between coach and coachee, to deepen coachee reflection.
The use of executive coaching as a means to study the human brain is an approach that is firmly embedded within the framework of organizational cognitive neuroscience (Senior et al., 2011). Such an approach presents the opportunity to study behavioral outcomes in response to a variety of organizational manifestations, in the natural laboratory, that is the real world. While traditional application of the organizational cognitive neuroscience approach often resides within the context of managerial behavior etc. the study of executive coaching can now be added to its portfolio (Senior et al., 2015).
Author contributions
All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Publisher's note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
References
Athanasopoulou, A., and Dopson, S. (2018). A systematic review of executive coaching outcomes: Is it the journey or the destination that matters the most? Leadership Q. 29, 70–88. doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.11.004
Bailenson, J. N. (2021). Nonverbal overload: a theoretical argument for the causes of zoom fatigue. Technol. Mind Behav. 2, 1–16. doi: 10.1037/tmb0000030
Bartolome, G., Vila, S., Torrelles-Nadal, C., and Blanco, E. (2022). Right cortical activation during generation of creative insights: an electroencephalographic study of coaching. Front. Educ. 7, 1–13. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2022.753710
Blackman, A., Moscardo, G., and Gray, D. E. (2016). Challenges for the theory and practice of business coaching: a systematic review of empirical evidence. Hum. Res. Dev. Rev. 15, 459–486. doi: 10.1177/1534484316673177
Boyatzis, R. E., and Jack, A. I. (2018). The neuroscience of coaching. Consulting Psychol. J. Prac. Res. 70, 11–27. doi: 10.1037/cpb0000095
Britten, D. (2015). Felt sense and figurative space: clients' metaphors for their experiences of coaching. Int. J. Evid. Based Coach. Ment. 13, 14–29. Available online at: http://ray.yorksj.ac.uk/id/eprint/1140/
Cox, J. (2012). “Do we understand each other? An inquiry into the coaching relationship when working in different languages,” in Coaching Relationships, eds E. de Haan and C. Sills (England: CRC Press), 171–182.
Darics, E. (2019). Critical language and discourse awareness in management education. J. Manage. Educ. 43, 651–672. doi: 10.1177/1052562919848023
de Haan, D., and Nilsson, E. (2023). What can we know about the effectiveness of coaching? A meta-analysis based only on randomized controlled trials. Acad. Manage. Learn. Educ. 13, amle-2022. doi: 10.5465/amle.2022.0107
de Haan, E. (2019). A systematic review of qualitative studies in workplace and executive coaching: the emergence of a body of research. Consult. Psychol. J. Prac. Res. 71, 227–248. doi: 10.1037/cpb0000144
Dodane, C. (2022). From Sound Discrimination to Sound Identification: The Importance of Child-Directed Speech and Interactional Cues During Language Acquisition. From Discriminating to Discrimination: The Influence of Language on Identity and Subjectivity. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 1–12.
Fitch, W. (2010). Frontmatter. The Evolution of Language, Approaches to the Evolution of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1–7.
Hinz, J., Stephens, J. P., and Van Oosten, E. B. (2022). Toward a pedagogy of connection: a critical view of being relational in listening. Manage. Learning 53, 76–97. doi: 10.1177/13505076211047506
Horowitz, S. S. (2012). The Universal Sense: How Hearing Shapes the Mind. New York, NY: Bloomsbury Publishing USA.
Kisilevsky, B. S., Hains, S. M., Lee, K., Xie, X., Huang, H., Ye, H. H., et al. (2003). Effects of experience on fetal voice recognition. Psychol. Sci. 14, 220–224. doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.02435
Kluger, A. N., and Itzchakov, G. (2022). The power of listening at work. Ann. Rev. Org. Psychol. Org. Behav. 9, 121–146. doi: 10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-091013
Kluger, A. N., and Mizrahi, M. (2023). Defining listening: can we get rid of the adjectives? Curr. Opinion Psychol. 13, 101639. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101639
Li, Z., and Zhang, D. (2023). How does the human brain process noisy speech in real life? Insights from the second-person neuroscience perspective. Cognit. Neurodyn. 5, 1–12. doi: 10.1007/s11571-022-09924-w
Lynden, J., and Avery, R. (2016). Workplace telephone coaching conversations: a unique institutional practice as revealed through interpretive and empiricist multi-method approaches. Coach. Int. J. Theor. Res. Prac. 9, 5–23. doi: 10.1080/17521882.2015.1105835
McAlpine, D., and de Hoz, L. (2023). Listening loops and the adapting auditory brain. Front. Neurosci. 17, 1–4. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1081295
McLaughlin, M. (2013). Less is more: The executive coach's experience of working on the telephone. Int. J. Evid. Based Coach. Ment. 7, 1–13. Available online at: https://radar.brookes.ac.uk/radar/items/496377b3-7e90-4288-851e-f4d9a62fe79a/1/
Medalla, M., and Barbas, H. (2014). Specialized prefrontal “auditory fields”: organization of primate prefrontal-temporal pathways. Front. Neurosci. 8, 1–15. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2014.00077
Mohammed, N., Narayan, V., Patra, D. P., and Nanda, A. (2018). Louis Victor Leborgne (“Tan”). World Neurosurg. 100, 121–125. doi: 10.1016/j.wneu.2018.02.021
Nencheva, M. L., and Lew-Williams, C. (2022). Understanding why infant-directed speech supports learning: A dynamic attention perspective. Dev. Rev. 66, 1–14. doi: 10.1016/j.dr.2022.101047
Scott, S. K. (2019). From speech and talkers to social world: the neural processing of human spoken language. Science 366, 58–62. doi: 10.1126/science.aax0288
Senior, C., Lee, N., and Braeutigam, S. (2015). Society, organizations and the brain: Building toward a unified cognitive neuroscience perspective. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 9, 1–4. doi: 10.3389/978-2-88919-580-0
Senior, C., Lee, N., and Butler, M. (2011). Organizational cognitive neuroscience. Org. Sci. 22, 804–815. doi: 10.1287/orsc.1100.0532
Keywords: coaching, auditory, listening, speech, brain
Citation: Hoffmann B, Napiersky U and Senior C (2023) A sound case for listening. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 17:1228380. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1228380
Received: 24 May 2023; Accepted: 24 July 2023;
Published: 03 August 2023.
Edited by:
Oguz Kelemen, University of Szeged, HungaryReviewed by:
Ellen Brooks Van Oosten, Case Western Reserve University, United StatesCopyright © 2023 Hoffmann, Napiersky and Senior. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Bronwyn Hoffmann, bronwyn.hoffmann@icloud.com