Response of GHG emissions to interactions of temperature and drying in the karst wetland of the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau

Hydrothermal fluctuation is the major driving factor affecting greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in wetlands, but how wetland drying regulates the temperature dependence of GHG emissions remains uncertain. An experimental incubation was carried out to study the interaction effects of temperature (5, 10, 15, 20°C) and moisture (40%, 60%, 100% WHC) on soil GHG emissions in a karst wetland. The results showed that: 1) the cumulative CO₂ and N₂O emissions and global warming potential (GWP) increased with increasing temperature but decreased with soil drying. 2) There was a decreasing contribution of CO₂ and an increasing contribution of N₂O to GWP with increasing temperature and moisture. 3) Soil CO₂ and N₂O emissions and GWP were positively related to urease activity and negatively related to pH, soil organic matter and catalase. Soil CH₄ emissions were positively related to soil microbial biomass C and N. The hydrothermal changes, soil properties and their interaction explained 26.86%, 9.46% and 49.61% of the variation in GWP. Our results indicate that hydrothermal fluctuation has a significant effect on total GHG emissions by regulating soil properties.

1 Introduction

Wetlands cover 5%–8% of the global landscape (Fennessy, 2014) but account for approximately 15% of the terrestrial organic carbon stock (Han et al., 2013), which plays a critical role in regulating global carbon cycling and climatic change (Xiong et al., 2015; Salimi et al., 2021). Meanwhile, wetlands are a large source of CH₄ and N₂O (Sovik et al., 2006; Kayranli et al., 2010), in which global warming potential (GWP) is 28 and 298 times higher, respectively, than CO₂ on a 100-year time scale (Wang et al., 2021). Although many factors have been determined to affect wetland greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, the soil temperature and water content are confirmed to be the two major factors influencing GHG emissions (Toczydlowski et al., 2020; Docherty and Thomas, 2021). Climate change can alter wetland ecosystem biogeochemistry and affect gas emissions by increasing temperature and changing hydrological patterns (Salimi et al., 2021). Therefore, quantifying the response of GHG emissions to soil temperature and water content changes is critical to predicting the potential effect of wetlands on global warming.

Many studies have reported that there is an increasing trend of GHG efflux as the temperature and moisture increase in a certain range (Yang et al., 2013; Yvon-Durocher et al., 2014; Toczydlowski et al., 2020; Zhao et al., 2020). For instance, CO₂ and CH₄ emissions could increase approximately 3 times for every 10°C increase in temperature (McKenzie et al., 1998); elevating temperature significantly promotes soil CH₄ and N₂O emissions from wetlands (Liu et al., 2017; Toczydlowski et al., 2020). Higher temperatures can promote soil organic matter decomposition (Yang et al., 2013), microbial biomasses (Baldock et al., 2012), C cycle-related enzyme activities (Bell et al., 2010), and chemical reaction rates (Reichstein et al., 2013), thus enhancing greenhouse gas emissions. The moisture effect on wetland GHG emissions is dependent on the aerobic and anaerobic situations (Salimi et al., 2021). CO₂ emissions are often higher in unsaturated soils, while flooding causes a reduction in CO₂ and an increase in CH₄ emissions in wetlands (Yang et al., 2013; Zhao et al., 2020). Wetland moisture is crucial to the substrate supply for soil microorganisms and oxygen diffusivity (Salimi et al., 2021). On the one hand, unsaturated moisture is beneficial for forming an aerobic environment and providing more organic substrates for aerobic microorganisms, which in turn facilitates soil C and N mineralization and CH₄ oxidation (Yang et al., 2013; Henneberg et al., 2016; Zhang T. et al., 2020). On the other hand, excessive moisture prevents the proliferation of O₂ and further limits aerobic microbial activity, resulting in a decrease in CO₂ emissions (Martikainen et al., 1993; Yang et al., 2013). Furthermore, excessive moisture promotes anaerobic microsites and therefore promotes CH₄ emissions (Kang et al., 2012) and N₂O efflux through denitrification (Dobbie and Smith, 2001). However, some studies have reported that higher temperatures have a small effect on CO₂ emissions (Liu et al., 2017) or reduce CH₄ emissions when wetlands are constrained by the soil water content (Houweling et al., 2000; Kang et al., 2012), while increasing moisture decreases N₂O emissions (Zhang, et al., 2020). These different results reveal that the response of wetland GHG emissions to soil temperature and water content changes remains inconclusive.

Wetlands are normally distributed in ecotones between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, leading to inevitable hydrothermal fluctuations in temperature and moisture (Salimi et al., 2021). Although many field studies have been performed on the factors affecting soil GHG flux rates in wetlands globally, it is difficult to determine a single parameter because other factors usually covary or interact (Zhao et al., 2020). Laboratory incubation has proven to be a feasible approach for overcoming confounding covariations. Many studies have researched the potential mechanisms of wetland GHG emissions under various temperature and moisture conditions (Liu et al., 2017; Zhao et al., 2020), whereas only a few studies have focused on the interactions of temperature and moisture (Gao et al., 2011; Toczydlowski et al., 2020). Moreover, there are large seasonal variations in hydrological cycling due to human impacts such as artificial drainage (Chen et al., 2018) and climate change, such as temperature increases and precipitation reductions (Wu et al., 2017; Salimi et al., 2021), which in turn cause long-term drier rather than wetter conditions in many wetlands (Zhao et al., 2020). Therefore, it is critical to elucidating the responses of GHG emissions to unsaturated moisture conditions combined with temperature.

Guizhou Province, as the center of karst landform in southwest China (Wang L. et al., 2018), is one of the largest and continuous typical karst region in China (Liu et al., 2022). Its exposed karst land has caused soil degradation, soil erosion and a sharp decline in soil productivity. It also aggravates the problems of drought and flood. As one of the important sources of GHG emissions in plateau regions, wetland ecosystems are extremely vulnerable and particularly sensitive to global warming and related changes in temperature and precipitation (Yang et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2022). Study has shown that the coverage rate of karst wetland ecosystem is increasing at an average rate of about 5% per decade (Fan et al., 2015). Therefore, the study on the impact of temperature and moisture changes on GHG emissions in karst wetland ecosystems has important guiding significance for future global climate change.

Therefore, we conducted an incubation experiment, made up of four temperature gradients and three moisture gradients, in the karst wetland of the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau. The objectives of the present study were 1) to determine the interactions of temperature and soil drying on CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O emissions, 2) to compare the contribution of three greenhouse gases to global warming potential (GWP), and 3) to explore the relationship between soil factors and GHG emissions.

2 Methods

2.1 Experimental design

Incubation samples were collected at a depth of 0–10 cm from calcareous soil located in Huaxi National Urban Wetland Park (26°29'∼26°36′N, 106°27'∼106°52′E) in Guiyang City, which is in a typical karst wetland on the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau. Each sample was freeze-dried and passed through a 2 mm sieve. We conducted a 3 × 4 factorial design with two factors: a temperature gradient of 5 (T₅), 10 (T₁₀), 15 (T₁₅), and 20°C (T₂₀) and a moisture gradient of 40% (W₄₀), 60% (W₆₀), and 100% (W₁₀₀) water-holding capacity (WHC). There were 12 treatment combinations with three replicates in each treatment.

Before incubation, 100 g freeze-dried soil was put into a 250 ml plastic jar, and then deionized moisture was added to adjust the required soil moisture content. Then, the jars were placed in four constant temperature incubators (LRH-100CA, Shanghai Yiheng Co. Ltd, China) at a gradient of 5, 10, 15 and 20°C, respectively. The jars were covered with perforated plastic film to facilitate gas flow. During the cultivation period, a weighing method was used to maintain constant moisture by adding deionized water every 5 days.

2.2 Greenhouse gas measurement

The jars were flushed with fresh air for 20 min to clear the gas accumulated in the culture flask before taking the gas sample and were then sealed the jars via a cap with a three-way valve. The gas samples were collected at 0 and 30 min using a 10 ml syringe after 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 days of incubation.

Gas samples were using gas chromatography (GC-2014, Shimadzu, Japan). The contents of CH₄ and CO₂ were determined by the front detector FID (hydrogen flame ion detector) at 200°C. N₂O concentration was determined by an ECD (electron capture detector) at 300°C and 99.99% high purity nitrogen as the carrier gas. The GHG flux rate was calculated following (Junna et al., 2014).

$F=\rho \times \frac{dc}{dt}\times \frac{V}{m}\times \frac{273}{273+T}(1)$

where F is the instantaneous rate of greenhouse gas, ρ is the gas density (kg m⁻³), $\frac{dc}{dt}$ is the increase in gas concentration in the culture flask per unit time, V is the gas volume of jars headspace (m³), m is the mass of soil (kg), and T is the culture temperature. The cumulative greenhouse gas emission was determined by the sum of the productions of the average rate and the time between sampling dates (Zhang et al., 2015).

The global warming potential (GWP, mg kg⁻¹, CO₂ equivalent) was calculated following the formulae of (Wang et al., 2021).

$GWP={CE}_{{CO}_2}+{CE}_{{CH}_4}\times 28+{CE}_{N_{2}O}\times 298(2)$

2.3 Data analysis and statistics

Two-way ANOVA was used to test the effects of temperature, moisture and their interactions on GHG emissions and GWP. The LSD test was used to test the difference among all treatments. Pearson correlation was used to analyse the correlation between greenhouse gas emissions and soil factors. Statistical analysis was conducted by using IBM SPSS Statistics 26 and Origin Pro 2021. Variance decomposition analysis was implemented by the varpart function in the “Vegan” package of RStudio. All analyses were defined as significant at the 0.05 level.

3 Results

3.1 Temporal changes in GHG emission rates

The CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O emission rates of all treatments showed similar variations with incubation time (Figure 1). The CO₂ emission rate reached a maximum before the third day and then decreased gradually to stable in both the temperature and moisture treatments (Figures 1A,B). The CH₄ emission rate was lowest on the third day and then increased to stable in both the temperature and moisture treatments (Figures 1C,D). The N₂O emission rate of each treatment showed small fluctuations during the whole incubation period, except for a peak value in T₂₀ and W₁₀₀ on the 10th day (Figures 1E,F).

FIGURE 1

FIGURE 1. Temporal changes in soil CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O emission rates. The error bars show standard errors: n = 9 and 12 for temperature and WHC, respectively.

3.2 Cumulative GHG emissions and GWP

Soil CO₂ emissions increased with increasing temperature (Figure 2A), increasing by 5.6% (T₁₀), 76% (T₁₅, p < 0.05), and 133% (T₂₀, p < 0.05) compared to T₅ (Figure 2A and Table 1). The soil N₂O emissions of T₁₅ and T₂₀ showed significant increases compared to T₅ (Figure 2E and Table 1). Soil CH₄ emissions were not significantly affected by temperature (Figure 2C, p > 0.05). The soil CO₂ emissions increased by 31% (W₆₀) and 209% (W₁₀₀, p < 0.05) compared to W₄₀; soil N₂O emissions showed significant increases in W₁₀₀ compared to W₄₀ (Figures 2B,F, p < 0.05). The cumulative CH₄ emissions increased with increasing moisture (Figure 2D); however, there were no significant differences between treatments due to the complicated response under different temperature levels (Table 1 and Figure 3B).

FIGURE 2

FIGURE 2. Temporal changes in soil cumulative CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O emissions. The error bars show standard errors: n = 9 and 12 for temperature and WHC, respectively.

TABLE 1

TABLE 1. Cumulative greenhouse gas emissions (means ± se).

FIGURE 3

FIGURE 3. Interactions of temperature and moisture treatment on soil cumulative CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O emissions at the end of culture. The capital letters are the differences between the same temperature and different moisture treatments, and the lowercase letters are the differences between the same moisture and different temperature treatments. The error bars show standard errors: n = 3.

The GWP increased by 14% (T₁₀), 95% (T₁₅, p < 0.05), and 185% (T₂₀, p < 0.05) compared to T₅ (Table 1). The GWP of W₁₀₀ was significantly increased compared to that of W₄₀ (Table 1, p < 0.05). The contribution of CO₂ to GWP was more than 84.93% and decreased with temperature and moisture increases, but the contribution of N₂O to GWP increased with temperature and moisture increases (Table 2). Temperature, moisture and their interactions had significant effects on CO₂/GWP and N₂O/GWP (Table 2, p < 0.01). There were significant effects of temperature and moisture interactions on CO₂ and N₂O emissions and GWP (Table 1). The CO₂ and N₂O emissions and GWP of W₁₀₀ were significantly higher than those of W₄₀ and W₆₀ among the different temperature gradients, and there were significant differences in CO₂ emissions and GWP between W₄₀ and W₆₀ under the T₁₀ treatment (p < 0.05, Figures 3A,D).

TABLE 2

TABLE 2. The contributions of CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O emissions to GWP.

3.3 Factors affecting GHG emissions

Temperature had significant effects on SOM, but there was no interaction between temperature and moisture. Soil MBC, MBN and NH₄⁺-N significantly decreased with increasing soil drying and temperature; in contrast, soil sucrase increased with increasing temperature and drying (Table 3, p < 0.05). Soil catalase and urease increased as the temperature (Table 3, p < 0.05) increased from 40% WHC to 60% WHC and then decreased down from 100% WHC.

TABLE 3

TABLE 3. Soil properties after 30 days of incubation.

Pearson correlation analysis showed that the cumulative CO₂ and N₂O emissions and GWP were positively related to soil moisture, temperature, and urease activity and negatively related to pH, SOM and catalase (p < 0.05, Figure 4A). The cumulative CH₄ emissions were positively related to MBC and MBN (Figure 4A, p < 0.05). Variance decomposition analysis found that hydrothermal, soil properties and their interaction explained 26.86%, 9.46% and 49.61% of the variation in GWP, respectively (Figure 4B).

FIGURE 4

FIGURE 4. Pearson correlation analysis (A). The red and blue ellipses represent positive and negative correlations between GHG emissions and soil properties, respectively. The darker the colour and the flatter the graph are, the stronger the correlation is, and * represents significance (p < 0.05). (B) The variance decomposition analysis of global warming potential (GWP) influenced by soil hydrothermal factors and soil properties, in which the overlap represents the common influence and the residual represents the unexplained variation. T: temperature; W: moisture; SOM: soil organic matter; TN: total nitrogen; TP: total phosphorus; MBC: microbial biomass carbon; MBN: microbial biomass nitrogen; NH₄⁺-N: ammonium nitrogen; NO₃⁻-N: nitrate nitrogen, same as Table 3.

4 Discussion

4.1 Effects of soil temperature on GHG emissions

Higher temperatures significantly promoted CO₂ emissions in this study (Table 1), which is in line with many previous studies (Schaufler et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2020; Toczydlowski et al., 2020). Gao et al. (2011) reported that the soil CO₂ emission rate increased by 2.4–3.7 times in swamps and peat wetlands from 5 to 35°C. Increasing temperature can promote soil microbial activity and decomposition of soil organic matter by improving microbial substrate availability (Silvola et al., 1996; Inglett et al., 2012), thus increasing CO₂ emissions and reducing soil SOC content (Na et al., 2011). We found that SOM, MBC and MBN significantly decreased with increasing temperature and were negatively related to CO₂ emissions (Figure 4A). Previous studies also found that increasing temperature resulted in decreases in SOC (Kirschbaum, 2000; He et al., 2020), MBC and MBN (Rinnan et al., 2009; Fu et al., 2012).

Elevating temperature often leads to a higher methane efflux under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions (Inglett et al., 2012; Vilakazi et al., 2021). For example, Macdonald et al. (1998) indicated that the CH₄ emission rate showed an exponential increase between 5 and 30°C. However, we found that there were no differences among the four temperature gradients due to the complicated responses under different moisture levels (Figure 3B). Temperature alters CH₄ production by affecting soil organic matter, C availability, redox processes, and bacterial community changes such as methanogens abundance, composition and activity (Morrissey et al., 2014; Li et al., 2020). Li et al. (2020) indicated that high MBC and MBN contents are a potential mechanism leading to high CH₄ emissions. Our study showed that CH₄ emissions were positively related to MBC and MBN (Figure 4A), indicating that temperature affects CH₄ emissions by regulating microbial biomass C and N.

In our study, increasing temperature significantly promoted N₂O emissions, with a maximum in the T₂₀ treatment (Table 1), which was consistent with previous studies conducted in Tibetan (Liu et al., 2017) and European wetland soils (Schaufler et al., 2010). Cui et al. (2018) found that elevating temperature increased the N₂O flux rate by 147% in a northern peat wetland. Elevating temperature could stimulate the soil nitrogen mineralization rate, which in turn increases the availability of mineral nitrogen and provides a nutrient supply for nitrification and denitrification to produce N₂O (Morse and Bernhardt, 2013). We found that elevating temperature significantly reduced soil NH₄⁺-N and increased NO₃⁻-N content (Table 3). Even with an extremely low NH₄⁺-N content, the ammonia-oxidizing archaeal community could still use NH₄⁺-N to produce NO₃⁻-N (Martens-Habbena et al., 2009). Although soil was not incubated at higher temperatures in the present study, a previous study reported that the N₂O emissions were higher than those at 20 °C when the temperature increased to 25 and 34°C, and high temperature promoted the expression of denitrifying genes (Wang et al., 2018).

4.2 Effects of soil moisture on GHG emissions

We found that the soil CO₂ emissions at 100% WHC were 3.1 times higher than those at 40% WHC (Table 1). This result is similar to (Maucieri et al., 2017), who observed that soil CO₂ emissions increased by 2.7 times from 25% to 100% WHC in Australia. Soil moisture usually determines the decomposition rate of soil organic matter in wetlands (Burkett and Kusler, 2000). Generally, soil CO₂ emissions are positively correlated with moisture under unsaturated moisture conditions (Silvola et al., 1996; Blodau et al., 2004). Oxygen diffusion to deep soil can increase organic matter mineralization, and CO₂ production from aerobic respiration is more effective than anaerobic respiration, which in turn accelerates CO₂ transport in unsaturated soil (Yang et al., 2013). In addition, soil microbes are more active when there is moisture below the soil surface, and these microbes utilize the active organic carbon matrix, which directly causes higher CO₂ emissions (Chimner and Cooper, 2003). However, some studies found that moisture was negatively related to CO₂ emissions under seasonal flooded conditions (Chen et al., 2013; Zhao et al., 2020). The excessive increase in moisture can mitigate the diffusion and availability of O₂ in soil, thus reducing CO₂ emissions by limiting the activity of aerobic microbes and the decomposition of SOC (Jimenez et al., 2012; Yang et al., 2014; Khalid et al., 2019).

Soil moisture is a major factor in regulating CH₄ oxidation and emission (Khalid et al., 2019). We found that higher moisture promoted CH₄ emissions, which were highest at 100% WHC (Table 1). Higher moisture can reduce the oxygen concentration, which is beneficial to the anaerobic decomposition of methanogens, thus promoting CH₄ production (McInerney and Helton, 2016). Instead, the CH₄ emission rate may be reduced under low moisture conditions by enhancing CH₄ oxidation (Maucieri et al., 2017). Moreover, soil CH₄ emissions were positively correlated with MBC and MBN in this study (Figure 4A). Soil organic carbon is the carbon source and energy for generating CH₄, in which microbial biomass carbon can provide a substrate for methanogens (Li et al., 2020). Many previous studies also reported that soil MBC had a highly positive correlation with CH₄ emissions (Rasilo et al., 2017; Zhou et al., 2019). In addition, methanotrophic bacteria have a certain demand for NH₄⁺-N (Bodelier and Laanbroek, 2004), which can increase the activity of methanogens and reduce the activity of methane bacteria (Bodelier et al., 2012), thereby increasing methane emissions. Although moisture had no significant effect on NH₄⁺-N content in the present study, there was a significant interaction of moisture and temperature on NH₄⁺-N content (Table 1).

Our study found that increasing soil moisture promoted N₂O emissions, with the highest emissions in the 100% WHC treatment (Figure 2F). A previous study also found that the largest N₂O emissions occur at 80% and 100% water-filled porosity spaces (Ciarlo et al., 2007). Soil moisture is often positively correlated with N₂O emissions (Schaufler et al., 2010), including linear (Dobbie and Smith, 2001), quadratic (Ciarlo et al., 2007) or exponential relationships (Dobbie and Smith, 2003), while a few studies have shown no obvious relationship between N₂O emissions and moisture change (Krauss and Whitbeck, 2012). N₂O production is the result of nitrification and denitrification with the participation of soil microorganisms (Braker and Conrad, 2011). Higher moisture can increase the soil soluble carbon content for microbes to provide sufficient C and N sources and improve the microbial nitrogen conversion rate, thus increasing N₂O emissions (Wu et al., 2022). In addition, wetland N₂O emissions are affected by NH₄⁺-N content to a certain extent, which could be produced by nitrification of NH₄⁺-N (Cui et al., 2016).

4.3 Temperature interaction with moisture on GWP

We found that soil CO₂ and N₂O emissions were significantly affected by temperature and moisture interactions in this study (Table 1), which was consistent with the results of black ash wetlands in this study (Toczydlowski et al., 2020). We found that soil CO₂ and N₂O emissions under high moisture (W₁₀₀) were significantly higher than those under low moisture (W₄₀ and W₆₀) in all temperature treatments (Table 1; Figures 3A,C). (Rey et al., 2010) indicated that moisture had a greater effect on soil CO₂ emissions than temperature under low moisture conditions (40% and 60% WHC), while temperature had a greater effect on CO₂ emissions under higher moisture conditions (100% WHC). However, the temperature and moisture interaction had no significant impact on CH₄ emissions in the present study (Table 1), which was inconsistent with other studies. For instance, soil temperature and moisture interactions had a significant impact on CH₄ emissions in alpine marshes and peat wetlands (Gao et al., 2011). The variations may result from the differences in soil types (Tian et al., 2010), soil properties (Li et al., 2020) and soil moisture (Yang et al., 2013).

Global warming potential converts the elevating temperature effect of a certain greenhouse gas in a certain time range into equivalent CO₂, which can quantitatively assess the effect of greenhouse gas on climate warming. We found that soil CO₂ emissions were the main contribution of GWP (above 84.93%), followed by N₂O (Table 2). A previous study reported that CO₂ emissions accounted for 94–100% and 75–85% of the GWP in mineral and organic wetland soils, respectively (Bonnett et al., 2013). Huang et al. (2019) found that CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O contributed 20%, 10% and 70% to the GWP of artificial tidal mangrove wetlands, respectively. One study even found that CH₄ emissions accounted for 68% of the GWP in natural mangrove wetlands (Wang et al., 2016).

In the present study, increasing temperature significantly increased the GWP, which was 2.85 times higher in T₂₀ than in T₅ (Table 1), suggesting that the GWP has positive feedback to climate warming. Similar results were also found in other studies in which the GWP at 20°C was 2.8 times higher than that at 5 °C in Alaskan peat wetlands (Treat et al., 2014) and 2.1 times higher at 19°C than at 7°C in Tibetan alpine wetlands (Liu et al., 2017). Correlation analysis indicated that temperature and moisture affected GWP mainly by affecting soil pH, organic matter, nitrogen availability and enzyme activity (Figure 4A). Hydrothermal factors and soil properties together accounted for 85.93% of GWP variations (Figure 4B), suggesting that GWP is not only regulated by soil temperature and moisture interactions but also affected by soil chemical properties. Li et al. (2020) found that soil environmental variables account for 28%–67% of GHG emission changes in coastal wetlands. Environmental variables could explain 58.58% of the change in carbon concentration under elevated temperature conditions in paddy wetlands and natural wetlands (Furlanetto et al., 2018). Our results supported that GHG emissions are not only affected by temperature and moisture but also regulated by soil properties and enzyme activities (Salimi et al., 2021).

5 Conclusion

Increasing temperature and moisture significantly promoted CO₂ and N₂O emissions, and CH₄ emissions increased with increasing moisture. There was a decrease in the contribution of CO₂ but an increase in the contribution of N₂O to the GWP with increasing temperature and moisture. The CO₂ and N₂O emissions and GWP were positively correlated with urease activity and negatively correlated with soil pH, SOM and catalase. Soil CH₄ emissions were positively correlated with MBC and MBN. The hydrothermal changes (temperature and moisture), soil properties and their interaction explained 26.86%, 9.46% and 49.61% of the variations in GWP, respectively, suggesting that the temperature and moisture interaction had a direct effect on GHG emissions and an indirect effect by regulating soil properties.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary materials, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

YH: Data processing and analysis, manuscript writing TZ: Funding acquisition, Data analysis, Manuscript writing and editing QZ: Gas measurements and data sorting XG: Data curation supporting, Formal analysis supporting TH: Resources supporting SY: Gas measurements.

Funding

This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (42061013, 41701081) and Guizhou Provincial Science and Technology Projects (ZK(2022)146, (2020)1Y118).

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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