Early husbandry practices in highland areas during the Neolithic: the case of Coro Trasito cave (Huesca, Spain)

Research on animal management strategies in high mountain areas during the early Neolithic (5,700–4,500 cal BC) has been conditioned by the presumption that human occupations in highland areas had a prominent seasonal character and the economic practices focused mainly on the exploitation of wild resources. The results obtained in the framework of research developed recently on settlement dynamics during the early Neolithic in the highland areas indicate the existence of relatively permanent occupations and the exploitation of domestic resources. Regarding livestock, the role of caprine transhumance in highland areas has been highlighted traditionally, conferring a marginal role to husbandry activities and emphasizing principally the temporary maintenance of herds of sheep and goats. In this study, we use the archaeozoological data and δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N stable isotopes composition of the faunal bones collagen to characterize the husbandry practices in Coro Trasito cave (Huesca, Spain). The results obtained demonstrated the presence of diverse herd foddering strategies within husbandry practices characterized by taxonomic diversity and multipurpose exploitation suggests that during the Neolithic, Coro Trasito cave played a more complex role than sheepfold. Moreover, the presence of the four main domestic species indicates the adaptation of herds of Coro Trasito to the cave environment, flocks with diverse dietary needs and reproductive behaviors. The results are discussed with an integrated analysis of the data related to animal management strategies in highland areas (more than 1,500 m. asl) during the early Neolithic, in particular in the central Pyrenees area. This study offers new elements to study the complexity of neolithization processes in the central Pyrenees and how these areas were quickly integrated into a broader economic system.

1 Introduction

The study of animal management strategies in high mountain regions of the Iberian Peninsula during the Early Neolithic (c. 5,700–4,500 cal BC) has been influenced by the assumption that settlements in these areas were primarily seasonal. This assumption has linked the settlements to pastoral or transhumant activities from the beginning of the Neolithic, emphasizing the role of caprine transhumance in highland areas (Martín et al., 2010; Rojo-Guerra et al., 2013, 2014; Lancelotti et al., 2014; Tornero et al., 2018; Tejedor-Rodríguez et al., 2021). However, new research as well as the discovery of new archaeological sites have revealed a wide range of situations, evidencing many complex mixed farming models involving interactions between plant and animal herding (Ebersbach, 2010; Antolín et al., 2018; Villalba-Mouco et al., 2018; Sierra et al., 2019; Gassiot et al., 2021, 2022). In Iberian Pyrenees, Antolín et al. (2018) demonstrate that the settlement dynamics during the Early Neolithic could have been characterized by relatively permanent occupations and the exploitation of domestic resources. Clear evidence of permanent activity at the mountain sites would include agriculture practices, along with other practices linked to medium-to-long-term strategies, such as the storage of plant-based products (Antolín et al., 2017). Regarding livestock, the presence of the four main domestic species (Bos taurus, Sus domesticus, Ovis aries, and Capra hircus) has been evidenced in the archaeological sites located above 900 m in the Iberian Pyrenees during the Neolithic (with the exception of the Zatoya site: Antolín et al., 2018, p. 88). In the sites where domesticates have been identified, various uses and exploitations of these animals have also been documented (Viñerta, 2015; Antolín et al., 2018; Sierra et al., 2019; Viñerta and Saña, 2019).

Recent research about the Neolithisation process and the socioeconomic dynamics trends of the Neolithic in the central Pyrenees has revealed livestock management practices in the surrounding areas of the Neolithic settlements documented at altitudes ranging from 1,400 to 1,800 m asl (Clemente-Conte et al., 2014; Antolín et al., 2018; Gassiot et al., 2018, 2022; Obea et al., 2021). Sites such as Coro Trasito cave, Cueva Lóbrica, Els Trocs, and Cova del Sardo demonstrate well-established human communities engaged in agricultural and husbandry activities by the end of the sixth millennium and the beginning of the fifth millennium cal BC (Clemente-Conte et al., 2014; Gassiot et al., 2018, 2022). Activities related to local deforestation were observed at Els Trocs and Cova del Sardo. These activities included the clearing of vegetation and the presence of species associated with anthropic action. This suggests activities associated with local grazing and agriculture (Gassiot et al., 2012, 2022; Uría, 2013; Rodríguez-Antón, 2020). However, the scenario is more complex. While Els Trocs and Cova del Sardo document the main domesticates, it is characterized as an occupation closely linked to the seasonal exploitation of caprines (Navarrete and Saña, 2013; Rojo-Guerra et al., 2013, 2014; Gassiot et al., 2018), while Coro Trasito reflects a diverse and complex economic spectrum (Clemente-Conte et al., 2016; Viñerta and Saña, 2019). Additionally in Cova del Sardo and Coro Trasito provide evidence of dairy consumption (Tarifa, 2019).

In this context, settling in mountain regions may not exclude greater permanence and/or more intensive management of these areas. It can involve specialized husbandry practices, leading to the simultaneous management of domesticates, different productive purposes and specific feeding practices. These strategies can encompass activities within the local grazing areas, through mobility strategies, or involve the provision of forage. Considering that each domesticate exhibits distinct requirements and behaviors, a combination of planning and control mechanisms becomes essential to ensure the wellbeing and reproduction of the herds. Although more works address this problem in the Iberian Peninsula (Navarrete et al., 2017, 2019; Tornero et al., 2018; Sierra et al., 2019; Martin et al., 2021; Navarrete et al., Accepted; Tejedor-Rodríguez et al., 2021), there is still a gap in information on animal management strategies during the Neolithic in mountain areas, and the characterization of grazing areas, foraging strategies, and the relation of the herds with the environmental characteristics of the area, the type of site and the use of the settlement. The combined use of archaeozoological and stable isotope analysis can provide us with the keys to the study of pastoral management strategies (Madgwick et al., 2012; Balasse et al., 2016; Navarrete et al., 2017, Accepted).

The main objective of this research is to characterize husbandry practices at the Coro Trasito site during the early Neolithic, emphasizing the management strategies of domesticates. Using archaeozoological and stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis in bulk collagen, we will evaluate the animal ecology, herd management and feeding strategies implemented in Coro Trasito. The results will also be discussed within the framework of the neolithisation models proposed for the Iberian Peninsula and, especially, for the central area of the Pyrenees.

2 Coro Trasito (Tella-Sin, Huesca)

Coro Trasito is a large cave located on the southern slope of the Sierra de Las Tucas in Tella-Sin, Huesca, Spain, at 1,540 m a.s.l (Figure 1). This cave has an entrance that is 30.2 m long and 4.4 m high, with a maximum depth of 16.4 m (Clemente-Conte et al., 2014). According to the climatic classification of J. Papadakis, the site is located on the border of the cold temperate and humid Patagonian climate (MAPAMA, 1996), with an average temperature of 7.3°C (Ninyerola et al., 2005). The site is located in a current area of moors and heathland (CORINE Land Cover, 2018). Between the highest areas of the Sierra de Las Tucas and the cave, natural grasslands provide grazing access for livestock during the summer. Below the cave mouth, there are slopes suitable for cultivation and with historic terraces. Adjacent to these historic terraces are mixed forests and coniferous forests (CORINE Land Cover, 2018).

FIGURE 1

Figure 1. Location of Coro Trasito cave (Huesca, Spain).

Although the cave was documented in the 1970's, it was not until 2011 that systematic archaeological work began with a test pit (2011 and 2013) in order to evaluate the archaeological sequence and, since 2014, an excavation in extension (Figure 2). The first survey carried out in 2011 and 2013 uncovered antrophic occupations from the early Neolithic (5,320–4,365 cal BC), during the second half of the Second Millennium cal BC (1,430–1,130 cal BC) and, finally, to the Contemporary era (Clemente-Conte et al., 2014, 2016; Gassiot et al., 2018). Regarding Neolithic occupations three phases were identified dating from 5,300–5,000 cal BC, 4,990–4,885 cal BC, and 4,785–4,585 cal BC (Figure 3). The initial phase of cave occupation is characterized by its use as stable for animals. From c. 4,800 cal BC, the presence of domesticates and the use of space for storage in small pits, as well as for habitation and work area was documented (Clemente-Conte et al., 2020). The analysis of archaeological remains suggests the complexity of the occupation dynamics at the site. The predominance of domestic animals remains was recorded, highlighting pigs (Sus domesticus) and cattle (Bos taurus) in the early layers (Viñerta, 2015). Additionally, the consumption of dairy products is evidenced from the analysis of organic residues (Tarifa, 2019). Carpological remains of naked barley (Hordeum vulgare var. nudum) and naked wheat (Triticum aestivum s.l./durum Desf./turgidum L.) were recovered (Antolín et al., 2018). The presence of Bromus sp., Polygonum convolvulus, Galium aparine, and Chenopodium sp. has also been documented (Antolín et al., 2018). Pollen analysis reveals a high representation of cereals, suggesting the existence of nearby crop fields (Obea et al., 2021). Among the ceramic fragments recovered, both culinary and storage use have been identified (Díaz Bonilla et al., 2016). The presence of tools related to ceramic production indicates the carrying out of various artisanal activities at the site (Clemente-Conte et al., 2016). Furthermore, the presence of a wide range of tools such as grinding stones and sickles, along with storage pits, suggest that Coro Trasito could have functioned as a relatively stable occupation throughout most of the year, rather than being a specialized and seasonal site (Clemente-Conte et al., 2016, 2020; Clemente-Conte and Mazzucco, in press).

FIGURE 2

Figure 2. (A) Above: Image of the southern slope of Sierra de Tucas (Huesca, Spain). The arrow indicates Coro Trasito cave. Below: Entrance to Coro Trasito cave. (B) Plan view of Coro Trasito cave, showing the location of the 2011 and 2013 test-pit and the area of the extended excavation. The isocotes indicate every 20 cm.

FIGURE 3

Figure 3. North, east and south profiles of the 2011–2013 test-pit of Coro Trasito cave (Huesca, Spain).

3 Materials and methods

3.1 Archaeozoological analysis

A total of 822 faunal remains corresponding to the Neolithic levels from Coro Trasito have been analyzed. Three hundred and twenty faunal remains belong to the occupations dated ca. 5,300–4,900 cal BC (N-I), and 502 faunal remains to those dated ca. 4,900–4,700 cal BC (N-II). In this study, only the remains that have been identified anatomically and taxonomically are presented (NISP_total = 395; NISP_N-I = 194; NISP_N-II = 206), focusing on domestic herds.

The bones were systematically classified both anatomically and taxonomically using the reference collection at the Laboratori d'Arqueozoologia of the Autonomous University of Barcelona (Spain), in addition to several reference manuals. For this study, the archaeozoological analysis has focused on the study of taxonomic representation frequencies and the estimation of the age of death. Quantitative assessment of the assemblages was based on the Number of Identified Specimens (NISP) and the Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI). The MNI was calculated by considering the estimated age, anatomical representation and laterality (Lyman, 1994). We estimate the age of the death using a combination of the estimation of stages of tooth wear (Grant, 1982; Payne, 1985, 1987; Jones, 2006; Lemoine et al., 2014), eruption sequences and epiphyseal fusion in postcranial elements (Silver, 1969; Barone, 1976; Amorosi, 1989; Zeder, 2006).

3.2 Carbon and nitrogen analysis

Twenty-one faunal individuals were selected from N-II for stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis in bulk collagen. We selected a range of herbivores [n = 11, including domestic (Ovis aries, Capra hircus, Bos taurus) and wild animals (Capra pyrenaica, Capreolus capreolus], omnivores (n = 9, Sus domesticus, Ursus arctos), and carnivores (n = 1, Vulpes vulpes). Samples for stable isotope analysis correspond to adult individuals previously determined through archaeozoological analyses (MNI and age estimation). The samples included the diaphysis of long bones, maxilla, mandibular diastema and phalanx. Specimens were selected to represent individual animals by sampling the same-sided portion of a specific element. When this was not possible, different specific elements from different archaeological layers, the same level: N-II, were analyzed. The N-I could not be sampled due to its high fragmentation and the thermal alterations of remains resulting from the fumier levels.

Collagen extraction and stable isotope analysis were performed at the Laboratori d'Arqueozoologia (Department of Prehistory) and Unitat d'Antropologia Biològica (Department Animal Biology, Plant Biology, and Ecology) at the Autonomous University of Barcelona (Spain). Faunal bone samples were collected with a rotary drill and cleaned to remove contaminating materials. Collagen extraction followed a modified Longin (1971) method (Brown et al., 1988; Richards and Hedges, 1999; Craig et al., 2010). Collagen samples weighing 0.3 mg were subjected to analysis using a Thermo Flash 1,112 elemental analyzer (EA) coupled to a Thermo Delta V Advantage isotope ratio mass spectrometer (IRMS) with a Conflo III interface, at the Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA-UAB) (Spain). The average analytical error was <0.2‰ (1σ) for δ¹⁵N and <0.1‰ (1σ) for δ¹³C as determined from the duplicate analyses of δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N. As a control, the international laboratory standard IAEA 600 (caffeine) was employed. For δ¹³C, the Vienna PeeDee Belemnite (V-PDB) was used, while air N₂ (AIR) served as the standard for δ¹⁵N. To assess the δ¹³C values, one-way ANOVA test (α = 0.05) was employed, preceded by the verification of normal distribution through the Shapiro–Wilk test for normality (α = 0.05). Thus comparison between the δ¹⁵N values was performed using the Kruskal–Wallis test (α = 0.05). All statistical tests were performed using PAST 3.x (Hammer et al., 2001).

4 Results

4.1 Archaeozoological analysis

The results of specific variability revealed a slight dominance of domesticates in the early level (N-I). The percentage of domesticates ranged from 93.8% (NISP = 182) in N-I to 89.3% (NISP = 184) in N-II. Wild species in N-I (6.2%, NISP = 12) were represented by Cervus elephus (NISP = 5, MNI = 1), Capreolus capreolus (NISP = 4, MNI = 1), Sus scrofa (NISP = 2, MNI = 1), and Oryctolagus cuniculus (NISP = 2, MNI = 1). In N-II (10.7%, NISP = 22) wild species were represented by Cervus elephus (NISP = 10, MNI = 1), Capreolus capreolus (NISP = 2, MNI = 2), Capra pyrenaica (NISP = 2, MNI = 1), Sus scrofa (NISP = 1, MNI = 1), Oryctolagus cuniculus (NISP = 5, MNI = 1), Vulpes vulpes (NISP = 1, MNI = 1), and Ursus arctos (NISP = 1, MNI = 1). The results of slaughtering patterns for wild individuals showed specimens over 24 months old.

The composition of the herds was rather mixed in both levels. In N-I, the herds would have been composed of caprines (o/c NISP = 135, MNI = 13; goat NISP = 4, MNI = 2; sheep NISP = 3, MNI = 3), cattle (NISP = 23, MNI = 2), and pig (NISP = 17, MNI = 2) (Table 1). And in N-II, the herds seemed to be composed mainly of caprines (o/c NISP = 136, MNI = 3; sheep NISP = 12, MNI = 3; goat NISP = 2, MNI = 2), pig (NISP = 26, MNI = 6), and cattle (NISP = 8, MNI = 3) (Table 2). If the representation frequencies of domesticates are compared in N-I and N-II, an increase in the relative number of pig remains to cattle can be observed, as well as a higher number of sheep remains compared to goats in N-II. The minimum number of individuals (MNI) for each species in the Neolithic levels is different (MNI_total_N-I = 22; MNI_total_N-II = 17). In N-II, pigs show the highest increase in MNI among domesticates (N-I, MNI_pig = 2; N-II, MNI_pig = 6). Differences in the level of fragmentation within the faunal assemblages could explain the variation in the MNI between N-I and N-II for the Ovis/Capra.

TABLE 1

Table 1. Quantification of domestic species in N-I of Coro Trasito cave (Huesca, Spain).

TABLE 2

Table 2. Quantification of domestic species in N-II of Coro Trasito cave (Huesca, Spain).

Slaughtering patterns were analyzed per taxon. Pigs were killed between 18 and 21 months old; and cattle killed at more than 24 months old. For both levels, sheep and goats presented a rather similar pattern, were also primarily killed at between 6 and 24 months of age in N-I and between 12 and 24 months of age. In the N-I a large proportion of newborn and infantile caprines (41% of MNI) were also recovered (0–3 months of age). This proportion of neonates decreases in N-II (6% of MNI).

Neonate and infantile individuals <3 months of age have not been able to be classified into specific categories due to the high degree of fragmentation of the remains and, in some cases, the absence of identifying features of the species.

4.2 Carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes

Of the 21 samples analyzed, 19 samples exhibited satisfactory C% and N% ranged from 22 to 45% and 11 to 16%, respectively, with C:N ratios ranging from 3.2 to 3.6 and falling within the values proposed by DeNiro (1985), Ambrose (1990), and Van Klinken (1999) for preserved collagen. Although attempted repeatedly, collagen could not be extracted from samples 13 and 14. Data from the stable isotope analysis can be found in Table 3 and Figure 4.

TABLE 3

Table 3. Results from isotopic analysis of faunal samples from level N-II of Coro Trasito cave (Huesca, Spain).

FIGURE 4

Figure 4. Bone collagen δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values compared to the mean δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values ± 1σ s.d for each taxon from the faunal remains recovered at level N-II of Coro Trasito cave (Huesca, Spain).

The δ¹³C values of the individuals analyzed in Coro Trasito ranged from −20.99 to −18.57‰, average δ¹³C = −20.13‰ (n = 19). The δ¹⁵N values ranged from 6.13 to 2.80‰, average δ¹⁵N = 4.13‰ (n = 19).

The average δ¹³C values of wild herbivores was −20.11 ± 0.17‰ (n = 3). When the Ursus arctos sample was included with wild herbivores, although it is an omnivorous species its diet is mainly herbivorous, the average δ¹³C values for the wild herbivorous-omnivorous species was −20.08 ± 0.15 ‰ (n = 4). The average δ¹³C values of domestic herbivores was −20.18 ± 0.38‰ (n = 8) (Figure 4). Statistical tests showed that there are no significant differences in δ¹³C between wild and domestic herbivores (p > 0.6) and wild herbivores and domestic herds (p > 0.5). Likewise, there are no significant differences in δ¹³C between domestic herds (p > 0.8).

The average δ¹⁵N values of wild herbivores was 3.60 ± 0.11‰ (n = 3), and 3.61 ± 0.09‰ with Ursus arctos (n = 4). The average δ¹⁵N values of domestic herbivores was 4.28 ± 1.08‰ (n = 8). Statistical tests showed that there are no significant differences in δ¹⁵N between wild and domestic herbivores (p > 0.26) and wild herbivores and domestic herds (p > 0.27). Among herds, only the δ¹⁵N values were significantly different between cattle and goat (p = 0.008). Cattle were ¹⁵N-enriched by 2.3‰ compared to the goat. Although there are no significant differences between wild herbivores and herds, wild herbivores were ¹⁵N-enriched by 0.37‰ compared to pigs, 0.58‰ compared to sheep and 1.64‰ compared to cattle. Surprisingly, goats have a depletion of −0.67‰ compared to wild herbivores (Figure 5).

FIGURE 5

Figure 5. Box plot δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values from faunal remains recovered at level N-II of Coro Trasito cave (Huesca, Spain).

Carnivores were only represented by one specimen (Vulpes vulpes). The δ¹³C value was −18.57‰, and the δ¹⁵N value was 5.94‰.

5 Discussion

The results obtained from archaeozoological and isotopic analysis of Coro Trasito emphasizes the role of domestic animals in the highland areas and the complexity of the Neolithisation process in the central Pyrenees, where livestock and agriculture may have played roles different from those traditionally assumed for medium and high mountain areas (Antolín et al., 2018; Tornero et al., 2018; Sierra et al., 2019; Alt et al., 2020; Gassiot et al., 2021, 2022; Palomo et al., 2022). The importance of domesticates in early Neolithic layers of Coro Trasito is reinforced by the presence of the four main domestic species and a diversified husbandry strategy. The exploitation of caprines played a central role in the husbandry practices. Sheep flocks acquired progressively greater economic importance, as demonstrated by their increase during the N-II. The relative abundance of animal remains from neonate and infantile age, in N-I, could indicate the use of the cave as a stabling and/or breeding area. Martín et al. (2016) clarify that herders usually prefer to separate pregnant females from the rest of the herd to minimize risks during calving periods. In addition, excavations carried out in Coro Trasito have documented clearly stratified deposits of fumier (Clemente-Conte et al., 2014, 2016; Gassiot et al., 2018). Additionally, the presence of remains of infantile animals in N-I and N-II could also be related to dairy exploitation (Helmer, 1992). The analysis of the pottery waste from Coro Trasito shows how some of the Neolithic containers were used for dairy products (Tarifa, 2019). Furthermore, the documentation at Coro Trasito of the agriculture practices (Antolín and Jacomet, 2015; Antolín et al., 2018), supports the full development of practices such as agriculture and livestock in high mountain areas during the early Neolithic, leaving behind the character of traditionally granted marginal territory.

The breeding and maintenance of four different animal species, with diverse dietary requirements and reproductive behaviors, demonstrates an adaptation of herds to the cave environment. The wide availability of essential natural resources, including water and a wide variety of animal and plant resources, present in the various ecosystems (river valleys and forests) in the area, allowed the human communities that lived in Coro Trasito cave to exploit various ecosystems in the immediate surroundings. This is demonstrated by the archaeozoological results with the diversity of wild and domestic species exploited and the results of the carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes analyzed in bone collagen. The herbivore δ¹³C values suggest a terrestrial environment dominated by open C3-plants (De Niro and Epstein, 1978; O'Leary, 1988). The low variation and little dispersion in the δ¹³C values of herbivores and omnivores (amplitude of 1.67‰) and the non-existence of significant differences between the specimens analyzed, could indicate that the feeding areas of the Coro Trasito herds are similar between them.

The δ¹⁵N values increase due to arid conditions or vary depending on soil type and manuring effect (Ambrose and Norr, 1993; Handley et al., 1999). The δ¹⁵N values documented in wild herbivores are low and very little variable compared to sheep, pigs and cattle herds. Goat herds have lower δ¹⁵N values than wild herbivores. The low δ¹⁵N values in the goats may indicate grazing in an environment less impacted by humans, for example on soils that had not been used for agricultural practices or areas with less aridity.

In contrast, sheep have a different isotopic signature than goats. According to studies by Hodgson et al. (1991) and Dumont (1997), sheep are more readily including non-herbaceous plants into their diet. But Müldner et al. (2014) suggest that incorporating herbaceous or non-herbaceous plants into their diet seldom leads to discernible isotopic differences between the species in temperate C₃ environments. Three hypotheses could potentially account for the δ¹⁵N values observed in the sheep of Coro Trasito. Considering the significant presence of neonate and infantile individuals recovered in Coro Trasito cave, the animal feeding practices could play an important role in ensuring the nutritional wellbeing of the mother, which is essential for the survival of the lambs (Mellor and Stafford, 2004). It has been documented that the cereals were manipulated inside or in close proximity to the cave (Antolín et al., 2018; Obea et al., 2021), which could indicate the consumption of agricultural remains by the flocks. The impact of animal dung on plant δ¹⁵N values varies significantly and is influenced by factors such as the manuring rate and the type of fertilizer used (Fraser et al., 2011; Szpak, 2014). Firstly, δ¹⁵N values for Coro Trasito sheep could reflect the consumption of agricultural surpluses, such as crop stubble. Secondly, the δ¹⁵N values could indicate that the sheep flocks had the opportunity to graze in the manured fields. Thirdly, the enrichment of δ¹⁵N values could be due to feeding in a closed place such as a stable. In Coro Trasito, the fumier levels and the presence of neonates inside the cave have been interpreted as the cave serving as a stable for caprines (Viñerta and Saña, 2019; Clemente-Conte et al., 2020).

The cattle in the analyzed sample exhibit the highest δ¹⁵N values. This enrichment in δ¹⁵N may be attributed, similar to sheep, to factors like access to cultivated fields or the provision of surplus crops as forage. Furthermore, Bogaard et al. (2007, 2013) document that grains contain higher values of δ¹⁵N than manured cereal straws. Unfortunately, due to the extensive fragmentation of faunal remains, it has been impossible to conduct analyses on bone pathologies in the extremities of the studied cattle individuals. These analyses would have been useful to characterize tasks related to activities such as field maintenance. The archaeobotanical record of Coro Trasito suggests the presence of agricultural practices in the vicinity of the cave during the Neolithic period (Clemente-Conte et al., 2016; Antolín et al., 2018; Obea et al., 2021). The abundance of cereals and the existence of adventitious plants in an area previously densely forested imply the presence of small-scale crop fields near the cave (Clemente-Conte et al., 2016; Obea et al., 2021). Several lines of evidence support this hypothesis, including high pollen counts from both cereals and adventitious plants, the discovery of straw from both free-threshing and non-free-threshing cereals, and the carpological record of cereals at various stages of processing for consumption, indicating that cereals were manipulated inside or in close proximity to the cave (Antolín et al., 2018; Obea et al., 2021). Additionally, the discovery of multiple storage pits inside the cave indicates that the storage of plant products, such as cereals, might have played a significant role in the subsistence strategies at Coro Trasito (Gassiot et al., 2018). Lithic tools were also recovered that show the processing of the cereal, both in harvesting and grinding (Clemente-Conte et al., 2016).

Finally, the δ¹³C values of the pigs present the broadest range of variation compared to the other specimens analyzed. This variability in δ¹³C values suggests access to a broader range of plant resources compared to the other flocks. This could imply that they were free to roam in forested environments in addition to the use of the same landscape areas for grazing. Furthermore, the δ¹⁵N values indicate that pigs primarily consumed plant-based products, with values close to wild herbivores, although also of sheep. The variability in δ¹⁵N values could be explained by access to products as by-products of crop production, such as cereals and/or legumes. Alternatively, this variability could be related to the variation in the amount of animal protein ingested (Hamilton and Thomas, 2012). For example, the pigs' diet could have included worms, insects, or small animals, as well as human food waste such as garbage or the discarding of animal remains from butchery activities. Similar interpretations have been proposed for prehistoric pigs that were potentially raised within extensive herd management systems, characterized by semi-free to free-range regimes with plant-based diets for the Central Pyrenees (Villalba-Mouco et al., 2018) and Northeast of the Iberian Peninsula (Navarrete et al., 2017). In addition, the mortality profiles documented in Coro Trasito, where pigs are slaughtered at around 18 and 21 months of age, closely resemble those seen in traditional agricultural societies with extensive systems (Hadjikoumis, 2012).

The increase in MNI of pigs in N-II could suggest a greater interest in pig production. The decrease in subadult caprine individuals and the increase in infantile individuals may indicate greater use of derived products such as milk. Pigs could cover the food needs that until now had been met by caprines. This change in the composition of flocks during the Neolithic has also been documented in the Can Sadurní cave (Saña et al., 2015). The significant increase in the number of pig specimens and access to a broader range of plant resources documented by stable isotope analysis may be related to the adaptability of this species to different environmental conditions. It is important to note that pigs have a high reproduction rate and can adapt to different husbandry strategies, making them a versatile source of meat and other products such as fat or marrow (Crosby, 1986). Furthermore, the use of other pig by-products, such as fat, has been recorded in Coro Trasito. Tarifa (2019) reports a range of n-alkanoic acids (fatty acids) that are attributable to a source of non-ruminant adipose fat and related to pig fat in 7 of the 19 ceramic containers analyzed.

Finally, the presence of the four main domestic species is documented in Coro Trasito and the results of MNI analysis show that the size of each flock would be composed of a few individuals of each species. This type of flocks with few individuals is also documented in the Cova del Sardo (Navarrete and Saña, 2013) and Cova Colomera (Martín and Oms, 2021) sites.

6 Conclusion

The study of highland areas such as the mountainous zone of the Pyrenees has brought new and important data about the dynamics of neolithisation process, particularly focusing on economic practices. Husbandry practices played an essential role in the economic strategies of Coro Trasito during the early Neolithic.

The presence of diverse herd foddering strategies within husbandry practices characterized by taxonomic diversity and multipurpose exploitation suggests that during the Neolithic, Coro Trasito played a more complex role than sheepfold. The increase of MNI pig in N-II shows the importance of this specie in meat production during the Neolithic. Moreover, the results obtained demonstrated the rapid adaptation of herds of Coro Trasito to the region, flocks with diverse dietary needs and reproductive behaviors. The combination of archaeozoology and isotopic results and archaeological context suggests that Coro Trasito was not primarily a site for short-term occupations.

Furthermore, the presence of transformation activities related to dairy and fat products, and the existence of storage structures within the cave indicates the complexity of neolithisation processes in the central Pyrenees and how these areas were quickly integrated into a broader economic system.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

VN: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Software, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. AV: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Writing—review & editing, Formal analysis. IC-C: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Resources, Writing—review & editing. EG: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Resources, Writing—review & editing. JR: Conceptualization, Investigation, Resources, Writing—review & editing. MS: Conceptualization, Data curation, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Writing—review & editing.

Funding

The author(s) declare financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This research was supported by the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad, Spain: HAR2017-88304-P (MS), PID2020-115715GB-I00 (MS), PID2020-115205GB-100 (IC-C and EG), and ICREA Academia by MS.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank reviewers for their valuable comments on this article. The authors thank Dr. Pau Comes (ICTA-UAB) for his help with the IRMS data. Research by VN was supported by the Research Project CEECIND/03351/2020 (Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, Portugal). Part of this research has been carried out in 2021 SGR 00527 (EarlyFoods).

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's note

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