Design of a bidirectional DC/DC converter for a hybrid electric drive system with dual-battery storing energy

Electric vehicles are projected to play an important role in the present and ensuing transportation as global environmental and energy issues become more serious. Looking into the growing popularity of electric vehicles, we need to pay even more attention to battery energy storage systems. Electric vehicles in the traditional sense rely on a battery to provide electricity. Influential requirements (acceleration and braking) will deteriorate the battery, or it may not be feasible to use it at all in some instances, due to the battery’s compactness. This paper proposes a Bidirectional DC/DC Converter topology and investigates its operation modes. The proposed converter can be used in hybrid electric vehicles. Hybrid electric vehicles use this converter type to connect a primary battery (ES1), an extra battery (ES2), and an adjustable voltage bus. Both step-up (i.e., Dual-source low-voltage powering mode) and step-down (i.e., energy-regenerating high-voltage dc-link mode) modes of operation are possible with the proposed converter, allowing bidirectional power flow. Furthermore, the model can handle the flow of electricity between any two low-voltage sources. For the proposed Bidirectional DC/DC Converter, two ways of power transmission, circuit design, and operation modes are analyzed. A MATLAB-Simulink model of the proposed, and the system is developed based on a Digital Signal Processor flow chart, and the results of the simulation as well as the performance of the system are discussed.

1 Introduction

Changes in vehicle technology have been prompted by a shift in bias and the depletion of power sources. Advanced technology is being studied for future vehicle applications. Fuel-cell vehicle/hybrid electric vehicles (FCV/HEV) are one of these applications that is both efficient and promising. The ideal torque-speed pattern for an electric propulsion system was previously determined using vehicle dynamics (Ehsani et al., 1997). Geometries for various cars, such as HEVs, FCVs, and greater e-mobility (Emadi et al., 2005), as well as separate but equal power electronics aggressive treatment in modern vehicle power systems to meet huge vehicle loads (Emadi et al., 2006). The required full load power can be consumed with the help of a battery, fuel cell stack, and ultracapacitors using two energy management algorithms (Schaltz et al., 2009). HEV and FC vehicle research refer to energy monitoring systems and structures, information on various HEVs and Plug-in HEVs (PHEVs), and the effect of FC efficiency on control techniques (Thounthong et al., 2009; Chan et al., 2010). This research looked at battery, unmanned, and FC-based automation. Some of the hybrid ESSs (multi-device storage systems) were also investigated (Khaligh and Li, 2010). Batteries, electric motors, and power electronic systems are employed to establish the necessary current balance (Rajashekara, 2013). A dc/dc converter featuring a slew of interlocking features was devised by the team. A dc/dc converter can improve the voltage conversion efficiency for EV and DC microgrid systems (Lai et al., 2015). EV batteries require a bidirectional DC to DC converter (BDCC) to accept high voltage power from a microgrid (Lai, 2016). Primary battery storage is frequently used to activate the FC and to power the propel motor in FCV systems. Peak power is delivered as the vehicle speeds up, which helps to compensate for the FC. Super-capacitors (SCs) and other high-density components help to reduce the maximum energy non-linearities that can occur during acceleration and braking (Moreno et al., 2006). SCs may be able to store regenerated energy during slowdown and then release it to generate more electricity during propulsion. The FC stack and storage batteries get more usage out of their FCV systems with high-power density SCs (Bauman and Kazerani, 2008).

In this paper, a unique BDCC design for FCV/HEV power systems is developed using a synchronous buck-boost circuit (Jiang et al., 2013) and an interleaved voltage-double architecture (Jung et al., 2013). There are two primary methods of operation: low-voltage power from two sources and high-voltage dc-bus energy regeneration (Wu et al., 2013). The recommended converter can switch between two low-voltage sources in a buck/boost mode, autonomously. In contrast to (Farhangi and Toliyat, 2015), provided a topology that only represents a particular concept (Lin and Chao, 2013). The primary features of the recommended converter are as follows:

• Connects several dc sources with varied voltage ranges.

• Two low-voltage sources are linked via an ac bus and a voltage regulator.

• Reducing the stress on switch currents while increasing the static voltage gain.

Provides large voltage differences between the high and low ports, as well as a high duty cycle.

2 Basic structure for FCV/HEV

The primary power source is a low-voltage FC stack with SCs connected to FCs in parallel and is depicted in Figure 1 of a standard (FCV/HEV) (Ehsani et al., 2009) power system. The propulsion motor can be powered by the dc-bus voltage that is generated by the driving inverter’s dc/dc power components (Haihua and Khambadkone, 2008). Even though the vehicle work to expand design based on ES2, ES1 is utilized as the primary energy storage system medium for peak power generation. It is used to connect the operational inverter’s dc bus to dual-energy storage. Several BDCC switches have been distributed to supply particular voltages to loads while controlling power flow between several sources (Tao et al., 2008). Overall cost, mass, and power use are all reduced. The two categories of BDCCs are isolated and non-isolated BDCCs (Bhattacharya et al., 2009).

FIGURE 1

FIGURE 1. Schematic structure for an FCV/HEV power system.

Electrochemical cells are isolated from one another by using high-frequency transformers in isolated converters All other isolated multiport BDCC topologies, including hop, half or full-bridge circuits, double-active bridges, and other variations, have also been investigated (Krishnaswami and Mohan, 2009). BDCCs that are not isolated have a greater EV success rate than isolated BDCCs (Liu and Chen, 2009). Renewable energy sources, a battery storage system, and a load can all be powered simultaneously via the three-port non-isolated MIMO converter, which utilizes all these converter types. The three double-input converters developed in (Gummi and Ferdowsi, 2010) use a single-pole triple-throw switch and only one inductor. (Zhao et al., 2012). described a modular non-isolated dc MIMO converter. The fundamental boost circuit was improved and integrated into this converter, which is used to hybridize sustainable energy sources in electric vehicles.

2.1 Literature survey

Some of the most important references with their observation methods are listed in Table 1.

TABLE 1

TABLE 1. Literature survey.

The remaining part of the paper is laid out as follows. The proposed BDCC’s structure, as well as its operation modes, are explored and detailed in section 3. Section 4 describes the converter’s control system, and Section 5 depicts the simulation results for various operation modes. Conclusions and future work are presented at the end of the paper.

3 Topology and operation modes

The elevated dc bus voltage (V_H, V_ES1, and V_ES2), basic stored energy, and supplemental energy storage are shown in Figure 2 of the BDCC design (ES2), The current circuits of ES1 and ES2 are turned on and off by two bidirectional power switches (S, S_ES1 and S_ES2) in the converter’s layout (Kharade et al., 2021).

FIGURE 2

FIGURE 2. BDCC proposed architecture including dual battery storage.

A charge-pump capacitor (CB) with four active switches (Q₁, Q₂, Q₃, Q₄) and two-phase inductors (L₁, L₂) improves the dynamic voltage gain between two low-voltage dual sources (V_ES1, V_ES2) and the higher-voltage bus (V_H). By adding an extra CB, switching voltage stress is reduced, and a high duty ratio is no longer required.

Table 2 depicts all the conductivity levels of such power devices involved in each working model to demonstrate the concept for the proposed converter (Moradisizkoohi et al., 2019). As a result, the four functional states are illustrated as follows to aid comprehension.

TABLE 2

TABLE 2. Devices’ current state of operation for various operating modes.

3.1 Twin-source low-voltage powering mode

Stable patterns for the converter are shown in Figure 3, for dual-source low-voltage powering, Figure 3A. In the circuit, S_ES1, and S_ES2 are activated while controller S is deactivated. The V_ES1 and V_ES2 provide power to loads as well as a dc bus. The controllers Q₃ and Q₄ switch at a 180° phase difference in this mode, while the remaining Q₁ and Q₂ act as synchronous rectifiers (SR).

FIGURE 3

FIGURE 3. The proposed BDCC’s dual-source low-voltage powering mode: (A) Circuit design (B) Stable pattern.

More than half of the duty ratio allows access to four circuit levels as indicated in Typical Patterns Figure 3B. (As depicted in Figure 4). According to the state of the BDCC and the active switches, dual-source low-voltage powering mode operation can be described as follows.

FIGURE 4

FIGURE 4. The proposed BDCC’s circuit states for the dual-source low-voltage powering levels. (A) Level 1(B) Level 2 (C) Level 3 (D) Level 4.

3.1.1 Level 1 [t₀< t < t₁]

(1-Du)Tsw is the duration of the operation. The MOSFETsQ₁, Q₃, and Q₂, Q₄ are active throughout the period, whereas Q₂, Q₄ are dormant. The difference between V_ES1 and V_CB is the voltage across L₁. As a result, i_L1 decreases linearly from its basic value, whereas L₂ is charged by V_ES2in Figure 4A. Therefore, the inductor current rises linearly (Jang and Jovanovic, 2007). The relevant Eqs (Ehsani et al., 1997; Emadi et al., 2005)

$L_1\frac{{di}_{L1}}{dt}=V_{ES2}-V_{CB}(1)$

$L_2\frac{{di}_{L2}}{dt}=V_{ES2}(2)$

3.1.2 Level 2 [t₁< t < t₂]

The length of time is (Du-0.5). In this state T_sw, transistorsQ₃ and Q₄ are active, while Q₁ and Q₂ are inactive. Low-side voltages V_ES1 and V_ES2 are located between inductors L₁ and L₂, respectively, rising inductor currents linearly and initiating energy storage as indicated in Figure 4B. The voltages across inductors L₁ and L₂ may be expressed as Eq. (Emadi et al., 2006; Schaltz et al., 2009).

$L_1\frac{{di}_{L1}}{dt}=V_{ES1}(3)$

$L_2\frac{{di}_{L2}}{dt}=V_{ES2}(4)$

3.1.3 Level 3 [t₂< t < t₃]

(1-Du)Tswis the duration. The transistorsQ₁ and Q₃ are active throughout this time, whereas Q₂ and Q₄ are idle, in Figure 4C. The voltage expressions are (Thounthong et al., 2009; Chan et al., 2010)

$L_1\frac{{di}_{L1}}{dt}=V_{ES1}(5)$

$L_2\frac{{di}_{L2}}{dt}=V_{CB}+V_{ES2}-V_H(6)$

3.1.4 Level 4 [t₃< t < t₄]

The duration is (Du-0.5)Tsw in this interval the transistorsQ₃ and Q₄ are active and Q₁ and Q₂ are inactive in Figure 4D. The voltages expressions can be written as Eqs (Khaligh and Li, 2010; Rajashekara, 2013)

$L_1\frac{{di}_{L1}}{dt}=V_{ES1}(7)$

$L_2\frac{{di}_{L2}}{dt}=V_{ES2}(8)$

3.2 Energy-regenerating mode for high-voltage DC-Bus

Electricity is continuously supplied to and retrieved from the motor drive in this mode. There is a possibility that the regeneration power will exceed the battery’s ability to absorb it. A Rechargeable battery-powered storage device is an excellent option for this maximum electricity (Lai et al., 2018). Figure 5 (a) presents the BDCC circuit architecture and standard state pattern in the energy-regenerating high-voltage dc-link mode.

FIGURE 5

FIGURE 5. The proposed BDCC’s energy-regenerating high-voltage dc-link mode: (A) Circuit design (B) Stable pattern.

The inductive current may be adjusted with the 180⁰ phase angle using active switchesQ₁, Q₂. To increase the conversion efficiency illustrated in Figure 5, the remaining switchesQ₃, and Q₄ will operate as SR shown in Figure 5A, the stable waveforms duty ratio is less than 50%, as shown in Figure 5B, with these four various levels being achievable and stated as follows.

3.2.1 Level 1 [t₀< t < t₁]

The period is D_dT_sw, and Q₁ and Q₃ are active, while Q₂ and Q₄ are inactive. The variation between the lowered voltage V_ES1 and the charge-pump voltage V_CB is equal to the voltage across L1, therefore the inductor current i_L1 steadily drops from its beginning value seen in Figure 6A. The energy source V_ES2 also charges inductor L₂, causing the inductor current to expand linearly. The following are the important Eqa (Lai et al., 2015; Lai, 2016):

$L_1\frac{{di}_{L1}}{dt}=V_{ES1}-V_{CB}(9)$

$L_2\frac{{di}_{L2}}{dt}=V_{ES2}(10)$

FIGURE 6

FIGURE 6. The proposed BDCC’s circuit states for the energy-regenerating high-voltage dc-link levels: (A) Level 1(B) Level 2 (C) Level 3 (D) Level 4.

3.2.2 Level 2 [t₁< t < t₂]

The length of time is (0.5-D_d) The MOSFETsQ₃ and Q₄ are active in this scenario, whereas Q₁ and Q₂ are inactive. Inductor currents i_L1 and i_L2 develop linearly as L₁ and L₂ are positive in relation to the low-side voltages V_ES1 and V_ES2, as illustrated in Figure 6B are Eqs 11, 12.

$L_1\frac{{di}_{L1}}{dt}=V_{ES1}(11)$

$L_2\frac{{di}_{L2}}{dt}=V_{ES2}(12)$

3.2.3 Level 3 [t₂< t < t₃]

The duration is D_dTsw in this scenario, and the transistorsQ₁ and Q₃ are inactive, while Q₂ and Q₄ are active from Figure 6C. The application of a positive low-side voltage V_ES1 across L₁ causes i_L1 to expand linearly from its original value. Because of the discrepancy between the high-side voltage V_H, the charge-pump voltage V_CB, and the low-side voltage V_ES2, the voltage across L₂ is also negative. The relevant Eqs [ 13–14] are as follows

$L_1\frac{{di}_{L1}}{dt}=V_{ES1}(13)$

$L_2\frac{{di}_{L2}}{dt}=V_{ES2}+V_{CB}-V_H(14)$

2.2.3. Level 4 [t₃< t < t₄]: The period is (0.5-D_d)T_sw in this case, and the switchesQ₃ and Q₄ are active, while Q₁ and Q₂ are passive shown in Figure 6D are Eqs 15, 16

$L_1\frac{{di}_{L1}}{dt}=V_{ES1}(15)$

$L_2\frac{{di}_{L2}}{dt}=V_{ES2}(16)$

3.3 Twin-source low-voltage buck/boost mode

Figure 7 shows that the energy is exchanged from the primary store to the improved storage. In this phase, the converter is a single-leg bidirectional buck-boost.

FIGURE 7

FIGURE 7. The proposed BDCC’s low voltage dual-source Buck/Boost mode: (A) Circuit architecture (B) Steady-State patterns in Buck mode (C) Boost mode steady-state patterns.

According to Figure 8, the active bidirectional switch S’s duty cycle can be altered, which triggers the buck converter to switch power over to secondary energy storage.

FIGURE 8

FIGURE 8. The proposed BDCC circuit states for the low voltage dual-source buck mode (A) level 1 and (B) level 2.

According to Figure 9, primary and supplementary energy storage are both boosted when the transistor’sQ₃ duty cycle is adjusted to signal that it is in “boost operation mode.

FIGURE 9

FIGURE 9. The suggested BDCC circuit states for the low voltage dual-source boost mode (A) level 1 and (B) level 2.

4 Converter control

The BDC controller of the converter control system is depicted in Figure 10A, which contains a vehicular strategic management level. Figure 10B represents a real-time DSP flowchart used to test various working modes of the proposed BDCCs.

FIGURE 10

FIGURE 10. (A) Block diagram of the closed-loop control method; (B) designed DSP flowchart of the proposed BDCC’s multiple operating modes (Lai et al., 2018).

The regulation of flow in two ways from a lower potential source at two sides and a higher potential dc bus is shown in Figure 10A by using the current reference (i_{L1, ref}). This BDCC topology’s uniform average current sharing means that i_L2 is nearly identical to i_L1 regulated average inductor current. In distinction, the reference at current i_L2, _ref is employed for regulating the flow of power from primary and secondary energy storage systems. By using the triangular wave as one of the inputs, such as v_tri1 and v_tri2, the PWM ON and OFF method turns the total time dictated by a distinct selection of switches for switching ON gate control of power switches. It then chooses one of two current references, i_{L1, ref} or i_{L2, ref}, to regulate the switches (S, Q₁-Q₄) using PI or more complex approaches.

Figure 10B depicts the switching mode strategy, which is further detailed in the following diagram. To begin, the controller is in the i_L1 control loop (x₁ = 1) while the vehicle is in driving mode (P_dem>0), and the switch button which can be controlled is mentioned in Table 2 (the vehicle is accelerating (i_{L1, ref}>0, HV to 2 LV) or braking (i_{L1, ref} 0, 2 LV to HV). If none of these circumstances applies, the following mode switching judgment will be processed using reselect mode. Furthermore, the controller is in the i_L2 control loop (x₁ = 0) while the automobile is in the parking state (Pdem<0), and the switches are controlled as shown in Table 2. In this situation, the voltages of V_ES1 (96 V) and V_ES2 (72 V) influence mode switching (48 V). The mode is a low-voltage dual-source boost (i_{L2, ref}>0, V_ES2 to V_ES1) while V_ES1<96 V is present, and a low-voltage dual-source buck (i_{L2, ref}>0, V_ES1 to V_ES2) when V_ES2<48 V is present. If none of these requirements is fulfilled, the following mode switching judgment is processed using reselect mode. Based on the state-space averaging approach, only regulators with two closed-loop are designed to regulate the power flow in four conditions.

From Figure 11: the notations are

FIGURE 11

FIGURE 11. Diagrams demonstrating a closed-loop control method for (A) the energy from an energy-regenerating high-voltage dc-link mode and (B) the Dual-source low-voltage powering mode.

Fm: Indicates the PWM generator’s constant gain.

G_iL1d: Represents the ON and OFF cycle to current at inductor i_L1 conversion function.

G_iL2d: ON and OFF cycle to current at inductor controller transfer function.

Hi: Gain of the current sensor.

C_i1 and C_i2: Depict the inductor current controllers’ transfer function

Figures 11A,B depict closed-loop control block designs for lower-potential sources at dual end buck or boost (LV to HV) and higher-potential dc-bus power-regeneration modes, respectively.

5 Simulation results

Simulations are performed to check the performance of the suggested model, with the parameter components of C = 10µF, L = 250 mH, and V = 48V, 96 V and DC motor is assumed as an electric vehicle.

The model simulation is done in MATLAB-Simulink. The results are presented and discussed below.

The system power transmission from the dc-bus to the main & auxiliary energy storage is depicted in Figure 12. Currents flow in the opposite direction as the input power in inductors i_L1 and i_L2. VES1 and VES2 were at 96 V and 48V, respectively, on the low end.

FIGURE 12

FIGURE 12. Output voltage and inductor currents for a higher-potential dc-bus power-regenerating mode were measured.

Figures 13A,B illustrate that currents in inductors are exactly the opposite of what we can see, indicating that the model works well for both primary and secondary energy storage.

FIGURE 13

FIGURE 13. Low-voltage dual-source buck/boost mode, waveforms of output voltage, and inductor currents: (A) Boost Mode; (B) Buck Mode.

For the simulated system, these Figures 14, 15 depict the regulated current step shift waveforms in the lower potential dual-source providing and higher potential dc-bus electricity modes. The power flow was efficiently reversed, as indicated by the negative current waveforms, by changing i_H and i_L1 currents from low-side sources to supply 360 W of power to the elevated bus, as shown in Figures 14, 15.

FIGURE 14

FIGURE 14. Simulation patterns of a managed current change in step in lower-potential dual-source powering mode (i_H altered from 0 to 0.85 A; i_L1 changed from 0 to 2.5 A).

FIGURE 15

FIGURE 15. Simulation patterns of managed changes in current at step level in the higher-potential dc-bus power-regenerating mode (i_H altered from 0 to −0.85 A; i_L1 changed from 0 to −2.5 A).

We may adjust the current step shift of the prototype system using these two low-voltage operation modes, low voltage boost and low voltage buck. The raised current i_ES1 and the inductance current i_L2 were both modified to supply 576 W of power between reduced dual sources, as depicted in Figure 16A. The negative current waveform in Figure 16B shows how the output current was effectively reversed.

FIGURE 16

FIGURE 16. Simulation patterns of a managed step change in current in lower potential dual-source (A) Boosting Mode and (B) Buck Mode.

Comparisons of the proposed BDCC’s performance with existing models in the relevant literature are exhibited in Table 3.

TABLE 3

TABLE 3. Illustrating the difference in the performance among a wide range of converters.

Compared the proposed converter with the ones in (Lin and Chao, 2013) and (Chen et al., 2013), point out the fact that our converter includes fewer passive components. A further limitation of the other models is their inability to transfer energy in both directions. Although both (Hintz et al., 2015) and (Wai and Chen, 2014) claim to have bidirectional power flow, their best conversion efficiency is less than that of the converter suggested in this work. Furthermore, compared to the models provided in (Chen et al., 2013; Lin and Chao, 2013; Wai and Chen, 2014; Hintz et al., 2015), the proposed BDCC has a greater voltage conversion ratio.

6 Conclusion

This paper has explained the evolution of advanced bidirectional DC to DC converter topology. From BDCC, twin low voltage powering function, both the accelerating mode and braking mode were explained. In the case of high voltage powering function buck and boost, the model has been operated by controlling the switches. Also, a novel converter control for vehicle strategic management level, designed for the proposed BDCC controller with the help of digital signal processor (DSP) flow chart representations was presented. Various power transmission methods were used to handle the recommended BDC’s circuit layout, operating principles, analysis, and static voltage gains. A simulation system has been used to study and analyze the proposed BDCC topology’s performance and viability. It was found that the maximum energy capacity of the four different types of lower-potential dual-source charging systems is 97%, 95%, 95%, and 96%. The outputs have shown that suggested BDCC implements an electric hybrid design in FC/HEV systems. So, Electric vehicles (EVs) will increase battery availability. To put this in context, identifying applications for a lot of power generation potentials can provide tremendous value and even help drive down the cost of storage, allowing for more sustainable inclusion into our grids.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Author contributions

KVGR and MKK: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Resources, Software, Validation, Visualization, Writing—original draft. BSG: Data curation, Investigation, Supervision., KVGR, SK, and MB: Writing—review and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Glossary

EV Electric Vehicle

BDCC Bidirectional DC/DC Converter

HEV Hybrid Electric Vehicle

DSP Digital Signal Processor

FCV Fuel Cell Vehicle

PHEV Plugin Hybrid electric vehicle

ESS Energy Storage System

SC Super Capacitor

MIMO Multi Input Multi Output

PI Proportional Integral

IGBT Integrated Bipolar Transistor

MOSFET Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor

CCM Continuous Conduction Mode

PMSG Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator

DP Dynamic Programming

OBC Onboard Battery Charger

LV Low Voltage

HV High Voltage

DAB Dual Active Bridge

BMS Battery Management System

SOH Stage of Health

DIBBC Dual Input Buck Boost Converter

SOC State of Charge

CB Charge Pump Capacitor

SR Synchronous Rectifier

PWM Pulse Width Modulator

List of Symbols

ES1 Primary Battery

ES2 Auxiliary/Extra Battery

V_H Higher Voltage Bus/DC Bus Voltage

I_H High side current

i_L1 & i_L2 Inductor Currents

C_L1 & C_L2 Capacitor Currents

V_ES1, V_ES2 Energy Storage systems

S, SES1, SES2 Bidirectional Power Switches

CB Charge Pump Capacitor

D_d Duty Cycle of Q₁ & Q₂

D_u Duty Cycle of Q₃ & Q₄

V_CB Charge Pump Capacitor Voltage

P_dem Power Demand

Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4 Switches

L1, L2 Inductors

VES1, VES2 Voltage Sources