AUTHOR=Poulsen John R. , Beirne Christopher , Rundel Colin , Baldino Melissa , Kim Seokmin , Knorr Julia , Minich Taylor , Jin Lingrong , Núñez Chase L. , Xiao Shuyun , Mbamy Walter , Obiang Guichard Ndzeng , Masseloux Juliana , Nkoghe Tanguy , Ebanega Médard Obiang , Clark Connie J. , Fay Michael J. , Morkel Pete , Okouyi Joseph , White Lee J. T. , Wright Justin P. TITLE=Long Distance Seed Dispersal by Forest Elephants JOURNAL=Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution VOLUME=9 YEAR=2021 URL=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/ecology-and-evolution/articles/10.3389/fevo.2021.789264 DOI=10.3389/fevo.2021.789264 ISSN=2296-701X ABSTRACT=

By dispersing seeds long distances, large, fruit-eating animals influence plant population spread and community dynamics. After fruit consumption, animal gut passage time and movement determine seed dispersal patterns and distances. These, in turn, are influenced by extrinsic, environmental variables and intrinsic, individual-level variables. We simulated seed dispersal by forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) by integrating gut passage data from wild elephants with movement data from 96 individuals. On average, elephants dispersed seeds 5.3 km, with 89% of seeds dispersed farther than 1 km. The longest simulated seed dispersal distance was 101 km, with an average maximum dispersal distance of 40.1 km. Seed dispersal distances varied among national parks, perhaps due to unmeasured environmental differences such as habitat heterogeneity and configuration, but not with human disturbance or habitat openness. On average, male elephants dispersed seeds farther than females. Elephant behavioral traits strongly influenced dispersal distances, with bold, exploratory elephants dispersing seeds 1.1 km farther than shy, idler elephants. Protection of forest elephants, particularly males and highly mobile, exploratory individuals, is critical to maintaining long distance seed dispersal services that shape plant communities and tropical forest habitat.