Jinglin Su
Jing Sun
Liu Yang3
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- 1State Key laboratory of Petroleum Resources and Engineering, Beijing, China
- 2College of Geosciences, China University of Petroleum, Beijing, China
- 3PetroChina Hangzhou Research Institute of Geology, Hangzhou, China
The increasing presence of igneous rocks in hydrocarbon-bearing basins are drawing more attention. While the roles they play during the hydrocarbon generation and reservoir formation remain poorly understood, yet a detailed inspection of their geochemical features within the corresponding tectonic context is lacking. This study compiles comprehensive geochemical data, including major and trace elements, as well as the isotopic composition of igneous rocks spanning from 147 to 40 Ma at the Santos Basin and adjacent area. Based on their geochemical signatures and tectonic settings, the igneous rocks are classified and analyzed. During 147–40 Ma, the studied location had a complex tectonic background which demonstrated a transition from the mantle plume to continental rift, then to mantle plume, corresponding to the discovered geochemical characteristics. This progression corresponds to the breakup of the West Gondwana and the opening of the South Atlantic Ocean. The findings highlight the potential positive role of igneous rocks in hydrocarbon systems, revealing their potential favorable roles. These results provide a robust foundation for future exploration and research in analogous basins.
1 Introduction
The exploration of petroleum resources traditionally focused on sedimentary strata; however, recent research underscores the significant role of igneous rocks in hydrocarbon systems. Studies reveal that volcanic activities can influence hydrocarbon generation and reservoir formation through processes including modifying depositional environments and catalyzing hydrocarbon generation and so on. Globally, igneous rocks’ presences in hydrocarbon reservoirs are increasingly recognized for their potential, with major discoveries in regions such as Bohai Bay Basin, Sichuan Basin, and Northern JiangSu Basin (Guo et al., 2022; Luo et al., 2019; Mu and Ji, 2019; Wang et al., 2015; Jiang et al., 2011; Jin and Zhai, 2003). While the role igneous rocks played was historically overlooked, their importance has been validated by discoveries such as those in the Daqing Oilfield and the Dongying Sag, where volcanic rocks provide ideal reservoir spaces, pivotal age information and catalysts in hydrocarbon generation (Chen et al., 2018; Song, 2009; Jin et al., 2006; Zhai et al., 2004; Jin and Zhai, 2003; Wan et al., 2003). The presence of igneous rocks in petroleum systems generally indicates destruction, making them unfavorable. But these cases challenge the traditional perspective of avoiding igneous rocks in petroleum exploration. On the contrary, these igneous rocks offer critical insights into the interplay between magmatism and basin tectonics, even the hydrocarbon systems.
The Santos Basin, located on the passive continental margin of Brazil, presents an ideal case study for exploring the role of igneous rocks in the rift basin along the continental margin. As a petroleum-producing basin, it features a significant presence of igneous rocks. Additionally, the multiple episodes of igneous rocks interbed with the sedimentary layers make it unique for understanding the relationship between oil generation and rift basin development (Mohriak et al., 2012). In previous research, geophysical studies have classified the basin’s tectonic stages and coeval magmatic movements, while geochronological analyses of igneous rocks have established their different periods. However, a detailed investigation into the geochemical features and their tectonic implications remains insufficient.
In this study, we collected the geochemical and geochronological data of igneous rocks from the Santos Basin and adjacent areas at various ages. We compiled the data and classified the igneous rocks into different periods based on their age information and correlated tectonic backgrounds. Through the geochemical analysis on each episode of igneous rock, their unique features and tectonic implications are revealed. An overlook of the tectonic history in the studied areas is also proposed.
2 Geological background
The Santos Basin is a large sedimentary basin located on southeastern Brazil’s coast, recognized as part of the South Atlantic passive margin. The Santos basin is bounded by Cabo Frio High to the north and Florianópolis to the south, covering an area of approximately 350,000 km2. So far, the Santos Basin, has become one of the many major locations for global oil and gas exploration, with more than 15 blocks that each have petroleum reserves over 1.0 × 109 bbl, shedding insight into ultra-deep water and pre-salt exploration technologies. Next to the Santos Basin, there also are localities that develop large amounts of igneous rocks, including Campos Basin and Paraná Basin (Figure 1). The Campos Basin, situated north of the Santos Basin, is bounded by the Vitória High to the north and lies adjacent to it in the southern direction, and has coverage of 100,000 km2 with yet-to-discovered recoverable oil and gas resources of about 3.3 × 109 bbl. The Paraná Basin, on the other hand, recognized as the largest in Brazil, stands as one of the most significant oil-bearing basins in South America. (Anjos et al., 2024; Yu et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2020; Buckley et al., 2015; Moreira et al., 2007; Liu and Liu, 2006).
Figure 1
Figure 1. The geological map of the study area and locations of data points in Southeast Brazil. Modified from He et al. (2025).
Formed as basins along the passive continental margin, the abundance of magma movements must be correlated to the process of West Gondwana breaking and the South Atlantic Opening. In the Neoproterozoic era, West Gondwana formed primarily through the collision between Brasiliano-Pan African orogeny (Feng et al., 2024; Suárez et al., 2021). In the Mesozoic era, the West Gondwana started breaking along with the opening of the South Atlantic Ocean (Eagles and Eisermann, 2020; Feng et al., 2024). Both the continental drift and seafloor spreading led to the further separation of the continental masses and shaped the ocean formation. As a result, multiple episodes of volcanic activities closely tied to the tectonic movements happened along the continental margin, just as recorded in these locations (Eagles, 2007; Torsvik et al., 2009; Gao, 2022).
Having outlined the tectonic and sedimentary history of the basin, it is crucial to investigate the stratigraphy of the Santos Basin, as it reflects the basin’s evolutionary stages and sedimentary processes through lithological features, particularly the presence of igneous rocks. Developed on the pre-Cambrian crystalline basement, the Santos Basin has been classified into three distinct evolution phases based on tectonostratigraphic evidence: rift, post-rift, and drift, as proposed by Moreira et al. (2007). The rift sequences contain Camboriu, Picarras, and Itapema Formations, consisting of volcanic rocks (Camboriu), lake sediments (Picarras), coquinas and dark shales (Itapema). The post-rift sequences include Barra Velha and Ariri Formations, comprising microbialites, stromatolites (Barra Velha), and evaporites (Ariri). The drift sequences are composed of Florianópolis, Guarujá, Itanhaém Formations, mainly carbonate rocks and sandstones. In general, the geological sequences in the area feature igneous rocks within the rift sequences, along with interlayering of igneous and sedimentary strata, showing a complex interplay of different rock types.
3 Geochronology
The Santos Basin and adjacent areas contain multiple episodes of igneous rocks belonging to different magmatic durations, ranging from 147 Ma to 40 Ma. Rock types contain lamprophyre, basalt, diabase, andesite, kimberlite, syenite and phonolite. The dividing of these magmatic activities is still in debated.
Cheng et al. (2019) distinguished Santos Basin igneous rocks into three periods based on fault activities. (1) Rift phase (125–120 Ma). Determined by the borehole samples from drilled igneous rocks, the rift phase was dated to 125–120 Ma through 40Ar/39Ar isotopic analysis, indicating severe magmatic activities in the Early Cretaceous era. (2) Sag phase (∼110 Ma). Judged by sagging movements and Rift-Sag transition, less active than the Rift phase, the Sag phase was dated to ∼110 Ma through volcanic rock 40Ar/39Ar isotopic analysis. (3) Drift phase (90–70 Ma). With fault intensity close to the Sag phase, the Drift phase marked another episode of magmatic movement, dated back to 90–70 Ma by volcanic rock 40Ar/39Ar isotopic analysis.
Some studies introduced refined classifications by integrating geochronological, geochemical, and geophysical data. For example, Wang et al. (2018) concluded the basin-wide magmatic activities into four periods, followed as (1) Valanginian-Hauterivian (139–129 Ma), (2) Aptian (125–113 Ma), (3) Santonian-Campanian (86–72 Ma), (4) Eocene (56–33.9 Ma). In this research, instead of using exact age information, the igneous rocks were classified into different episodes based on chronostratigraphic periods, combining evidence from geophysical studies, including seismic profiles, distribution of fracture zones as well as gravity anomalies. Similarly, Gordon et al. (2023) adjusted the magmatic framework by integrating isotopic age data (including 40K/40Ar, 40Ar/39Ar, U-Pb age information) with tectonic contexts, identifying phases such as the Pre-Rift phase (135–132 Ma), the Rift phase (130–123 Ma), the Post-Rift phase (123–112 Ma), the Drift phase (112–23.3 Ma).
Recently, Liu et al. (2023) added emplacement-based distinctions and further divided the igneous rocks into more periods: (1) Valanginian-Hauterivian extrusive rock, (2) Barremian-Aptian extrusive rock, (3) Aptian extrusive rock, (4) Campanian intrusive rock, (5) Eocene extrusive rock, (6) Eocene intrusive rock. The exact geochronological information based on raw 40Ar/39Ar data in combination with a comprehensive interpretation of geochemical features are provided (He et al., 2025). The intrusive rocks have ages of 126–121 Ma based on whole rock and plagioclase 40Ar/39Ar isotope analysis, and the extrusive rocks are generally older than extrusive ones but belong to the same episode.
In summary, existing classifications of magmatic activity in the Santos Basin vary widely, reflecting differences in methodologies and focal points, including tectonic phases, chronostratigraphy, isotopic dating, and emplacement locations. While these studies provide valuable insights, discrepancies remain in defining precise time spans and linking magmatic episodes to geochemical and tectonic contexts.
Building on these foundations and based on rock geochemistry and petrological principles, variations in igneous episodes are usually expected to represent comprehensive changes in magma genesis and geochemical characteristics. Therefore, after the analysis of geochemical characteristics, including major, trace elements and isotopic compositions, the magma sources and geochronological information are compared with the regional tectonic background. Based on the above process, the tectonic movements corresponding to each period reveal a transition from mantle plume activity, continental rift, and mantle plume. Such a progression reflects an igneous rock sequence that was first initiated by the mantle plume dynamic, then the expansion of continental rift, and lastly, the reactivation of another mantle plume process. Thus, we suggest that the igneous rocks from Santos basins and adjacent areas should be divided into five episodes: (1) 147–127 Ma; (2) 126–121 Ma; (3) 120–112 Ma; (4) 87–66 Ma; and (5) 55–40 Ma. Furthermore, the geochemical characteristics, encompassing major, trace, and isotopic compositions, correspond closely with the tectonic context of each episode. This refined temporal classification not only offers a more precise adjustment, but also incorporates the geological evolutionary history of the region within its tectonic context, thereby providing a scientific basis for a deeper understanding of the formation of the igneous rocks and their tectonic control in southeastern Brazil.
4 Geochemical characteristics of multiple episodes of igneous rocks
4.1 147–127 ma igneous rocks’ characteristics
During this period, the main lithotypes include basalt, diabase, basaltic andesite and dacite. The dominant lithology comprises basic rocks exhibiting pronounced alkaline characteristics, with trace element and isotopic signatures suggesting a potential association with mantle plume activity. Both Total Alkaline vs Silica discrimination (TAS) and Zr/Ti vs Nb/Y diagram (Figure 2) indicate that the majority of rocks at this period plot into the basalt and basaltic fields with alkaline series and subalkaline series both present, and only a small portion is scattered in intermediate and acidic rock fields. The 147–127 Ma igneous rocks exhibit strong enrichment in Light Rare Earth Elements (LREEs) and depletion in Heavy Rare Earth Elements (HREEs) (Figure 3). The Large-ion Lithophile Elements (LILE) also enriched over the High Field-Strength Elements (HFSE), with enrichment in Ba, U, Ta, and depletion in Th (Figure 4). The initial 87Sr/86Sr values show a wide range, varying from 0.703,596 to 0.717,578, with the majority showing enriched signature. Similarly, they also show enriched Nd isotopic compositions, with 143Nd/144Nd values ranging from 0.511,384 to 0.512,777, with negative εNd(t) values for majority samples (−0.7 to −21.21) (Figure 5).
Figure 2
Figure 2. TAS discrimination diagram and Nb/Y vs. Zr/TiO2 diagram of igneous rocks from 147 Ma to 40 Ma. Classification after Bas et al. (1986) and Winchester and Floyd., (1977) respectively. All data are provided in Supplementary Material.
Figure 3
Figure 3. Chondrite normalized rare earth elements spidergram of igneous rocks from 147 Ma to 40 Ma. Chondrite data are from Sun and McDonough (1989). All data are provided in Supplementary Material.
Figure 4
Figure 4. Primitive mantle normalized trace elements spidergram of igneous rocks from 147 Ma to 40 Ma. Primitive mantle data are from Sun and McDonough (1989). All data are provided in Supplementary Material.
Figure 5
Figure 5. Whole-rock Sr-Nd isotopic composition of igneous rocks at 147-112 Ma (A) and 87-40 Ma (B). All data are provided in Supplementary Material. MORB and OIB data are from the Pet DB database (https://search.earthchem.org/).
4.2 126–121 ma igneous rocks’ characteristics
Between 126 and 121 Ma, basalts, diabases and a small portion of dacites were emplaced in both Paraná and Santos Basin (Figure 2). Compared with igneous rocks from Santos Basin, the 126–121 Ma igneous rocks from Paraná Basin have higher SiO2 content (48.70%–57.60% vs 36.92%–47.54%). Rocks emplaced in these two areas displayed enriched LREE and depleted HREE (Figure 3), and LILE enriched over HSFE (Figure 4). Meanwhile, they show decoupled Sr-Nd isotopes. The initial 87Sr/86Sr values have a rather wide range, from 0.704,609 to 0.709,684, whereas the initial 143Nd/144Nd values are 0.512,706–0.512,834, with εNd(t) +1.9 to +4.5 (Figure 5; He et al., 2025).
4.3 120–112 ma volcanic rocks’ characteristics
From 120 to 112 Ma, rocks are mainly subalkaline basaltic andesite and basalts (Figure 2). The MgO content varies from 2.10% to 8.05%, with one exception reaching 20.53%. This group of volcanic rocks has Na2O + K2O from 2.90% to 8.84%. The REE displays a pattern that LREE are more enriched than the HREE and have a narrower distribution range than earlier volcanic rocks (Figure 3). Strong enrichments exist in the Ba, U, and Ta, and depletion in Th (Figure 4). Both Sr and Nd isotopic compositions suggest an enriched characteristic, with 87Sr/86Sr values range from 0.705,804 to 0.706,804, and initial 143Nd/144Nd values ranging from 0.512,174 to 0.512,289 (Figure 5).
4.4 87–66 ma volcanic rocks’ characteristics
During the interval of 87–66 Ma, rocks are mainly syenite, lamprophyre, tephrite, phonolite and foidite. The acidic rocks emerge as the predominant lithotype, with most samples classified as alkaline (Figure 2). Compared with the earlier groups, the 87–66 Ma volcanic rocks display higher LREE enrichment over HREE, showing a greater degree of inclination in the diagram (Figure 3). Also, a distribution pattern where a more obvious enriched LILE and depleted HFSE, with depletion in Ba and Sr can be observed (Figure 4). They show enriched characteristics in Sr and Nd isotopic compositions, with initial 87Sr/86Sr values ranging from 0.704,530 to 0.708,250, and 143Nd/144Nd system varying from 0.512,370 to 0.512,550 (Figure 5).
4.5 55–40 ma volcanic rocks’ characteristics
Between 55 and 40 Ma, the igneous rocks are phonolite and tholeiitic dykes. They predominantly consist of basic compositions with subalkaline characteristics. The MgO contents are 0.01%–12.98%, and the Na2O + K2O contents are from 1.38% to 18.51%. The 55–40 Ma volcanic rocks share similar inclination trends with early rocks, with LREE enriched and HREE depleted (Figure 3). They also display a similar pattern that LILE enriched over HSFE and depletions in Ba, Sr (Figure 4). The initial 87Sr/86Sr values are from 0.704,010 to 0.711,326, with most falling between 0.704,010 and 0.706,130. And the initial 143Nd/144Nd values range from 0.512,250 to 0.512,760, most of which show depleted signatures (Figure 5).
5 Discussion
5.1 Fractional crystallization and crustal contamination
Understanding the geochemical characteristics of igneous rocks is crucial for unraveling their formation processes and tectonic settings. In this context, two key processes play a significant role: fractional crystallization and crustal contamination. Fractional crystallization appears to shape the geochemical characteristics of these rock at different levels. Whereas crustal contamination has likely influenced the geochemical signatures of rocks at different periods, as evidenced by the discrepancies of certain trace element ratios. Therefore, it is important to assess the influence of fractional crystallization and crustal contamination on the composition of these volcanic rocks.
In 147–127 Ma, the samples are mostly emplaced at the Paraná Basin and identified as continental flood basalts. The collected data indicate that the 147–127 Ma igneous rocks show strong correlations between MgO and other major oxides. As the MgO content decreases, the Na2O, K2O and Al2O3 contents increase, but the FeO, CaO, and TiO2 decrease (Figure 6). The decrease of CaO and FeO is indicative of the early crystallization of Olivine and Pyroxene. Meanwhile, Na and K being incompatible elements, remain concentrated in the residuals, aligning with the negative correlations between Na2O, K2O, and MgO. Subsequently, the decline in TiO2 suggests the crystallization of Ilmenite, corresponding to the decrease of FeO. In the later stage, the crystallization of Plagioclase crystallization became evident, as demonstrated by the negative correlation between Al2O3 and MgO. Before evaluating the presence of the crustal contamination, it needs to be pointed out that different elements are mobile during these processes (e.g., Sr, K), yet others remained relatively stable (e.g., Ti, Zr, Y, Nb, Th, and Nd) (Adriano et al., 2022; Bea, 2009; Kuritani et al., 2005; Smith and Smith, 1976). Thus, Nb, Th, Zr, Hf, La are selected here to verify the crustal contamination process as they are strongly incompatible LILEs and HFSEs which tend to remain in the melts other than minerals. Additionally, certain ratios such as Nb/Th, Nb/Zr, Hf/Th, Nb/La have generally distinct features (for the igneous rocks from mantle plume, Nb/Th: 5–15, Nb/Zr: 0–0.4, Hf/Th: 0.5–4.5, Nb/La: 0.4–1.5) and changes if contaminated by the crustal materials. The 147–127 Ma igneous rocks show clear signs of crustal contamination, evidenced by the progressive decrease in Nb/Th and Nb/Zr ratios co-occurring with the decline in MgO content, alongside the relatively low Hf/Th and Nb/La ratios (Figure 7). Within the lithosphere, Th exhibits significant enrichment over Nb and Hf, while Nb and Zr concentrations remain relatively stable in the mantle. Moreover, La preferentially remains in the melt phase rather than being incorporated into minerals, unlike Nb, which tends to be partitioned into specific mineral phases. Consequently, the incorporation of crustal materials causes decreases in Nb/Th and Nb/Zr ratios, and low Hf/Th and Nb/La ratios.
Figure 6
Figure 6. Variations in Na2O (A), FeOT (B), K2O (C), CaO (D), Al2O3 (E), TiO2 (F) vs MgO for igneous rocks from 147 Ma to 112 Ma. All data are provided in Supplementary Material.
Figure 7
Figure 7. Major and trace element ratios relationship (Nb/Th vs MgO (A), Nb/Zr vs MgO (B), Hf/Th vs Nb/Zr (C), Nb/Th vs Nb/La (D)) of igneous rocks from 147 Ma to 112 Ma. Modified from He et al. (2025). All data are provided in Supplementary Material. The crustal contamination line is from Marques et al. (2018). Lava flow are from the Walvis Ridges and the ocean islands of Tristan da Cunha and Gough Hoernle et al. (2015), Salters and Sachi-Kocher, (2010), Willbold and Stracke, (2006), Salters et al. (2011), Willbold and Stracke, (2010), and Weaver et al. (1987). The three locality are members of the Tristan mantle plume (Homrighausen et al., 2019; O’Connor and Jokat, 2015; Gibson et al., 2005).
In 126–112 Ma, correlations between MgO and other major oxides are not found, indicating no fractional crystallization happened. The 126–121 Ma reveals no crustal material mixing as the absence of correlations between MgO, Nb/Th, Nb/Zr, and the high ratio of Hf/Th and Nb/La (He et al., 2025). Similarly, the absence of correlations between MgO and other major oxides of igneous rocks in 120–112 Ma indicates no fractional crystallization. Further analysis of trace elements can be taken into consideration. On the other hand, the igneous rocks at 120–112 Ma display more complicated characteristics; samples that overlap the mantle plume composition have crustal contamination signatures, while others proved none. The group overlaps with the mantle plume are also from the Paraná Basin dated to different periods and the reasons of crustal contamination are discussed above.
In 87–66 Ma, strong correlations are observed in the igneous rocks (Figure 8), where the Na2O, K2O, Al2O3 contents increase, while FeO, CaO, TiO2 decrease with decreasing MgO. The reduction in CaO and FeO signals the formation of olivine and pyroxene. Concurrently, Na2O and K2O, being incompatible elements, are concentrated in melts, which corresponds to the inverse relationships observed between them and MgO. Following this, the drop in TiO2 indicates the crystallization of Ilmenite, which is associated with the decrease in FeO. In the final stage, the crystallization of Plagioclase becomes apparent, as evidenced by the negative correlation between Al2O3 and magnesium oxide MgO. Only a weak correlation between Hf/Th and Nb/Zr can be found, suggesting little or no crustal contamination.
Figure 8
Figure 8. Variations in Na2O (A), FeOT (B), K2O (C), CaO (D), Al2O3 (E), TiO2 (F) vs MgO for igneous rocks from 87 Ma to 40 Ma. All data are provided in Supplementary Material.
In 55–40 Ma, strong linear correlations are shown between Al2O3, FeO, CaO, TiO2, and MgO, unlike earlier rocks, the correlations between Na2O, K2O, and MgO are less obvious. The positive relations of FeO, CaO, and MgO indicate the crystallization of Olivine and Pyroxene. Also, the variation of FeO and TiO2 shows the crystallization of Ilmenite. Lastly, the linear trend of Al2O3 reveals the crystallization of plagioclase. During this period, relatively strong crustal contamination is indicated by the decreasing trends between Nb/Th, Nb/Zr and MgO, Hf/Th and Nb/Zr of samples from this period reveal crustal contamination at a lower level (Figure 9). Different from earlier rocks, only no correlation displayed between Nb/Th and Nb/La. This could be attributed to different sources of crustal material where elements are enriched at various levels. Still, other correlations proved crustal contamination during this period.
Figure 9
Figure 9. Major and trace element ratios relationship (Nb/Th vs MgO (A), Nb/Zr vs MgO (B), Hf/Th vs Nb/Zr (C), Nb/Th vs Nb/La (D)) of igneous rocks from 87 Ma to 40 Ma. Modified from He et al. (2025). All data are provided in Supplementary Material. The crustal contamination line is from Marques et al. (2018). Lava flow are from the Walvis Ridges and the ocean islands of Tristan da Cunha and Gough are from Hoernle et al. (2015), Salters and Sachi-Kocher, (2010), Willbold and Stracke, (2006), Salters et al. (2011), Willbold and Stracke, (2010), and Weaver et al. (1987). The three locality are members of the Tristan mantle plume (Homrighausen et al., 2019; O’Connor and Jokat, 2015; Gibson et al., 2005).
At 147–127 Ma, 87–66 Ma, and 55–40 Ma, all or portions of the sample show evidence of fractional crystallization and varying degrees of crustal contamination, posing challenges to further analysis. On the other hand, for the igneous rocks at 126–121 Ma and 120–112 Ma, direct analysis of the source region is more feasible, as these rocks likely represent primary magma.
5.2 Influence of the mantle plume and continental rift
Igneous rocks emplaced at different periods from Santos basin and adjacent areas show variable geochemical and isotopic compositions, indicating different source regions and evolutional paths.
Basalts emplaced during 147–127 Ma are coeval with the Tristan mantle plume at ∼135–132 Ma (Hoernle et al., 2015; Rohde et al., 2013; Renne et al., 2011; Renne et al., 1996; Segev, 2002) in Paraná Basin. The geochemical characteristics of igneous rocks during this period are similar to magmas with mantle plume origin. Firstly, the low Nb/Zr, Nb/Th and Nb/La ratios of igneous rocks display similarity to the rocks generated by the Tristan mantle plume system (Figure 7). Moreover, the wide range of initial 87Sr/86Sr and negative εNd(t) (Figure 5) point to potential similarity to the Tristan mantle plume characteristics as discussed in previous studies (Zhou et al., 2022; Homrighausen et al., 2019). Seismic evidences (P-wave finite-frequence traveltime, Rayleigh-wave phase velocity and receiver function) and geophysical modeling also confirm the existence of the Tristan mantle plume system and its influence (Geissler et al., 2020; Bonadio et al., 2018; Yuan et al., 2017; Schlömer, 2016). As the mantle plume ascends, it inevitably interacts with and incorporates lithospheric mantle and crustal materials, resulting in geochemical and isotopic signatures indicative of fractional crystallization and crustal contamination. Such a process is consistent with the observed geochemical features of this period, provides a reasonable explanation for their evolution, and discloses their mantle plume origin.
The trace elements of basalts and diabases emplaced at 126–112 Ma show high Nb/Th, Nb/Zr, Nb/La, whose trace elements characteristics plot all away from the mantle plume composition, excluding their mantle plume origin (Figure 7). Enriched Sr and Nd isotopic compositions show similar characteristics to Continental Rift basalts instead of Ocean Island Basalts (OIB) (Figure 10), and can be divided into two groups based on their ages, 126–121 Ma and 120–112 Ma. The REE fraction modeling suggests basalts at 126–121 Ma originated from the Spinel + Garnet (Spinel/Garnet>1) lherzolite face with 1%–5% partial melting. The high La/Sm ratios of the rocks display similarity to the rift basalts other than OIB. Whereas basaltic rocks at 120–112 Ma, modeling results show a deeper source region, from Spine + Garnet (Spinel/Garnet<1) lherzolite face with evidently higher partial melting degree (5%–10%), the rather low Sm/Yb ratios still point to similarity to the rift basalts. Lastly, the isotopic composition discloses the source region from the depleted mantle to the slightly enriched mantle, which is explained as the involvement of crustal materials during 120–112 Ma (He et al., 2025). Therefore, the origin of mafic rocks during 126–112 Ma are generated from the continental rift, and the rift extended from shallow to deeper asthenosphere (He et al., 2025).
Figure 10
Figure 10. Variations in La/Sm vs Sm/Yb for igneous rocks from 147 Ma to 112 Ma. Modified from He et al. (2025). All data are provided in Supplementary Material. The field of global continental rift basalt (CRB) and Ocean Island basalts (OIB) are from the PetDB database (https://search.earthchem.org/). DMM, depleted mid-ocean ridge basalt mantle; PM, primitive mantle, N-MORB, normal mid-ocean ridge basalt, E-MORB, enriched mid-ocean ridge basalt. The white-doted numbers stand for different partial melting degrees.
Igneous rocks emplaced at 87–40 Ma show completely different geochemical characteristics from rocks emplaced during 127–112 Ma. Although modeling result shows samples have higher La/Sm and Sm/Yb ratios, and plot into Spinel + Garnet lherzolite facies (Figure 11), which is similar to the continental rift basalts, it contradicts the area history that rift activity ends at ∼113 Ma (Moreira et al., 2007; Mohriak and Rosendahl, 2003). The relative low ratios of Nb/Th, Nb/La, and the wide range of Nb/Zr prove a connection between their source and the mantle plume (Figure 9). Moreover, the initial Nd values resemble the OIB (Figure 5). Previous geochemical and geochronological evidence also confirm existence of the mantle plume at this period (Santos et al., 2021; Gibson et al., 2005; Gibson et al., 1995). Hence, from 87 to 40 Ma, the igneous rocks are derived from mantle plume.
Figure 11
Figure 11. Variations in La/Sm vs Sm/Yb for igneous rocks from 87 Ma to 40 Ma. Modified from He et al. (2025). All data are provided in Supplementary Material. The field of global continental rift basalt (CRB) and Ocean Island basalts (OIB) are from the PetDB database (https://search.earthchem.org/). DMM, depleted mid-ocean ridge basalt mantle; PM, primitive mantle, N-MORB, normal mid-ocean ridge basalt, E-MORB, enriched mid-ocean ridge basalt. The white-doted numbers stand for different partial melting degrees.
Combining the major, trace element and isotopic compositions, the tectonic context of each episode can be revealed. In 147–127 Ma, the igneous rocks are from mantle plume source, carrying characteristics from the lithosphere inevitably incorporated during ascending. Then, magmatism occurred within a continental rift setting from 126 to 112 Ma. Lastly, during 87–40 Ma, the igneous rocks are under the influence of mantle plume. It is important to note that these tectonic activities have the potential to facilitate hydrocarbon generation. The mantle plume and continental rifting significantly influenced hydrocarbon generation in the Santos Basin by introducing heat that matured organic-rich source rocks like the Itapema Formation shales. Magmatic activity, including Aptian and Santonian-Campanian phases, created igneous complexes and local paleohighs, which acted as reservoirs or traps for hydrocarbons. The combined effects of the plume and rifting enhanced the basin’s hydrocarbon potential (Yan et al., 2024; Ismail-Zadeh et al., 2024; Zhao et al., 2023; Brune et al., 2023).
5.3 Geodynamic
Southeast Brazil’s passive continental margin and adjacent areas suffered a complex tectonic background from 147 to 40 Ma, including mantle plume, rifting, extension, and drift (He et al., 2025; Pinheiro and Cianfarra, 2021; Cogné et al., 2012; Assumpção et al., 2004; Assumpção., 1998). The Tristan da Cunha mantle plume began to uplift since ∼135 Ma, a process that is associated with the breakup of Gondwana and the subsequent opening of the South Atlantic Ocean during the Lower Cretaceous period (Chang et al., 1992; Cainelli and Mohriak, 1999). Around 85 Ma, the Trindade mantle plume became active, generating a series of alkaline rocks, with its influence persisting into the Eocene (Maia et al., 2021; Rocha et al., 2011; Thompson et al., 1998; Gibson et al., 1995).
The Tristan da Cunha mantle plume rose and formed huge amounts of flood basalts with crustal signatures. The thermal effects brought by the mantle plume heated and softened the overlying strata, leading to significant uplifting. From 126 to 112 Ma, the mantle plume’s contribution only exists in heat conduction. The magmas are sourced from Spinel + Garnet (Spinel/Garnet>1) lherzolite face and then shifted to Spine + Garnet (Spinel/Garnet<1) lherzolite face, which is from shallow asthenosphere to deeper asthenosphere. In the meantime, the partial melting degree of this period’s igneous rocks increased from 1%–5% to 5%–10%. At this stage, the geochemical characteristics correspond to the onset of rift activity, where the mantle plume-induced heating, combined with thinning and stretching of the lithosphere, deepened the source region. Such a process facilitated the mixing of crustal material, and altered the pressure, thereby allowing for a higher degree of partial melting. After the disclosure of rift activity, the igneous rocks are then sourced from the ascending mantle plume, with crustal material signature caused by up-welling (Figure 12).
Figure 12
Figure 12. The modal diagrams of the proposed tectonic evolution of the studied area, modified from He et al. (2025).
6 Conclusion
This study compiled the geochemical data of the Santos Basin and adjacent areas, whose age ranges from 147 Ma to 40 Ma. The geochemical features and their tectonic implications bring new insight into the magmatic movements on the passive margin. The source composition varies from the mantle plume to different depths of the asthenosphere, with mixing of crustal material at certain periods. The geological model indicates that the mantle plume initiated the rift and heated the overlying lithosphere, resulting in continental thinning and stretching. The research provides more perspectives in understanding the correlations between magmatism and basin dynamics.
Author contributions
JS: (1st author): Writing–original draft, Writing–review and editing, Data curation. JS (2nd author): Writing–original draft, Writing–review and editing, Data curation. LY: Data curation, Writing–review and editing.
Funding
The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Generative AI statement
The author(s) declare that no Generative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.
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Supplementary material
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2025.1560988/full#supplementary-material
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Keywords: Santos basin, igneous rock, gondwana, south atlantic opening, mantle plume
Citation: Su J, Sun J and Yang L (2025) Geochemical characteristics and tectonic implications of igneous rocks from the Santos Basin and adjacent areas. Front. Earth Sci. 13:1560988. doi: 10.3389/feart.2025.1560988
Received: 15 January 2025; Accepted: 20 February 2025;
Published: 17 March 2025.
Edited by:
Wei-Qiang Ji, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), ChinaCopyright © 2025 Su, Sun and Yang. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Jing Sun, c3VuamluZ3Z2QDE2My5jb20=
†These authors have contributed equally to this work