Jun-Jian Li
Zhi-Cai Dang1,2*
Peng-Peng Zhang- 1Tianjin Center, China Geological Survey, Tianjin, China
- 2North China Center for Geoscience Innovation, China Geological Survey, Tianjin, China
- 3Institute of Geophysical and Geochemical Exploration, Chinese Academy of Geological Science, Langfang, China
- 4School of Civil Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, China
- 5Institute of Geological Surveying, Hebei GEO University, Shijiazhuang, China
Located in the Penglai-Qixia-Fushan Gold Belt, the Yangjiakuang gold deposit formed in the marble of the Paleoproterozoic Fenzishan Group is different from the previous altered rock-type gold deposits whose host gold-bearing rocks are Archean gneiss and Mesozoic granite. Two gold orebodies have been explored within the Yangjiakuang gold deposit, and both of them were controlled by the Yangjiakuang syncline. Three ore-forming stages have been recognized, including the pyrite-sericite stage (I), the gold, polymetallic sulfide, and quartz stage (II), and quartz-calcite stage (III). The calcites, which represent the main metallogenic stage (II) at Yangjiakuang gold deposit, yielded a Sm-Nd isochron age of 123.5 ± 8.1 Ma (MSWD = 0.042). Subsequent geologic events were recorded by quartz diorite porphyrite dyke which are dated at 122.75 ± 0.66 Ma (MSWD = 1.5) by zircon LA-ICP-MS U-Pb dating. It is suggested that the gold mineralization took place in the early period of Early Cretaceous. The in situ δ34S values of pyrites from two stages have a narrow range from + 5.65 to + 9.63‰ with an average value of 8.14‰, which indicate that the source of δ34S is related to the Guojialing granite and the Fenzishan Group. The lead isotopic compositions of pyrites (206Pb/204Pb = 16.615 to 16.832; 207Pb/204Pb = 15.275 to 15.403; 208Pb/204Pb = 36.829–37.470) show a consistent origin of the lower crust. The measured 3He/4He (40Ar/36Ar) of hydrothermal fluids in pyrites are 0.641–1.132 Ra (637.5–1162.7), indicating that the ore-forming fluid originating from a mixing of crustal and mantle components. It is suggested that the gold mineralization is associated with extensional tectonic inversion caused by the rollback of the subducting Izanagi Plate during the early Cretaceous, which triggered partial melting of mantle and lower crust, and subsequent magma mixing and exsolution of ore-bearing fluids. These fluids extracted ore-forming materials from the enclosing rocks of the Jiaodong Group, the Fenzishan Group, and the Guojialing granite to form the ore-forming fluids.
1 Introduction
The Jiaodong Peninsula is located in the southeastern North China Craton (NCC) and hosts world-class gold deposits with total proven reserves of more than 5,000 t of gold (Song et al., 2021; Tian et al., 2022). In the Jiaodong Peninsula, three major gold metallogenic belts have been identified, including the Zhaoyuan-Laizhou Gold Belt, the Penglai-Qixia-Fushan Gold Belt, and the Muping-Rushan Gold Belt (Deng et al., 2020a; Wu et al., 2021). Three types of gold deposits have been identified so far, i.e., the auriferous quartz vein type, the altered rock type, and the interstratified breccia type (Mao et al., 2008; Yang et al., 2014a). Based on the evidence from geological, geochronological, geochemical, and isotope geochemical, previous researcher have been proposed various models for the genesis of three types of gold deposits (Yang and Zhou, 2001; Zhai et al., 2004; Li et al., 2006; Mao et al., 2008; Deng et al., 2011; Zhai and Santosh, 2013; Li et al., 2017; Li and Santosh, 2017; Yuan et al., 2019; Xu Y. et al., 2022; Tian et al., 2022). More recently, several gold deposits of altered rock types (e.g., Yangjiakuang, Dujiaya) (Figure 1B) have been identified in the Penglai-Qixia-Fushan Gold Belt (Ding et al., 2015). The host rocks for these deposits are Paleoproterozoic metamorphic rocks, which are different from the previous altered rock type for the gold deposits whose gold-bearing host rocks are Archean gneiss and Mesozoic granite. However, these deposits have not drawn much attention in the past, and whether the gold deposits distributed along the Penglai-Qixia-Fushan Gold Belt belong to a new episodic gold mineralization is poorly understood. A study on the genesis and geochronology of the Yangjiakuang gold deposit can expand our knowledge regarding the metallogenic theory concerning the Jiaodong gold deposit and provide a theoretical basis for the prospecting of the same type of gold deposit in the area. In this study, the isotopic compositions of sulfur, lead and He-Ar isotopes of the fluid inclusions were used to decipher the source of the fluids responsible for the Yangjiakuang gold mineralization. Calcite Sm-Nd isotopic dating and zircon U-Pb dating for post-mineralized quartz diorite porphyritic dyke were also conducted to constrain the metallogenic age for the Yangjiakuang gold deposit.
FIGURE 1. Simplified geological map of the Jiaodong Peninsula, showing the distribution of gold deposits, strata, magmatic rocks, and main faults (B). Inset shows tectonic blocks of the North China Craton and the location of the Jiaodong Peninsula (A) (simplified from Ding et al., 2015; Li et al., 2020; Dang et al., 2022). 1. Cenozoic sedimentary rocks; 2. Cenozoic basalts; 3. Cretaceous volcanic rocks; 4. Paleoproterozoic Jingshan Group and Fenzishan Group metamorphic rocks; 5. Neoarchean TTG and metamorphic supracrustal rocks; 6. Proterozoic granitic complex rocks; 7. Triassic granites; 8. Jurassic granites; 9. Cretaceous granites; 10. Regional faults.
2 Geological background
2.1 Regional geology
The Jiaodong Peninsula consists of two major terranes, namely, the Jiaobei terrane to the northwest and the Sulu ultrahigh-pressure (UHP) terrane to the southeast. These terranes are split by the Wulian-Yantai Fault (Deng et al., 2006; 2018; Yang et al., 2014b; Song et al., 2015; Li et al., 2021). The Jiaobei terrain can be further divided into the Jiaobei Uplift in the north and the Jiaolai Basin in the south (Figure 1A) (Deng et al., 2015).
The Jiaodong Peninsula is composed primarily of the Precambrian basement and Mesozoic igneous rocks. The former includes the Archean tonalite-throndhjemite-granodiorite (TTG) gneisses with small amounts of the Jiaodong Group comprising metamorphic supracrustal rocks and mafic granulite/amphibolite lenses, the Paleoproterozoic Fenzishan and Jingshan Groups, and the Neoproterozoic Penglai Group that consist of metasedimentary rocks (Tang et al., 2007; Yang et al., 2014b; Hao et al., 2020). Geochronological and geochemical studies have revealed that the TTG gneiss, amphibolite, and granulite have protolith ages of ∼2.9 to 2.7 Ga, 2.5 Ga, and 2.4 Ga, respectively (Jahn et al., 2008; Xie et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2015; Xie et al., 2015; Dang et al., 2022). The Jingshan Group which is composed of biotite granulite, garnet-biotite-graphite gneiss, dolomitic marble, diopside amphibolite, marble, and biotite-graphite schist (An, 1990; Li et al., 2018; Liu. Z. K et al., 2021), were metamorphosed at 1.8–1.7 Ga under amphibolite to granulite facies (Zhao and Zhai, 2013). The coeval Fenzishan Group has similar source rocks and lithologic compositions to those of the Jingshan Group, whereas the metamorphic grade is low, ranging from greenschist to lower amphibolite facies (Wang et al., 2009; Tan et al., 2015). Subsequently, the Neoproterozoic Penglai Group, which consists of fluvial-clastic and carbonate rocks, underwent lower greenschist-facies metamorphism to form slate, quartzite, and limestone (Faure et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2010; Tan et al., 2015; Liu. Z. K et al., 2021). This Precambrian basement is partly overlain by Cretaceous continental sediments and volcanic associations emplaced in the Jiaolai Basin (Liu. Z. K et al., 2021).
During the Mesozoic, extensive magmatism took place and formed a series of granitoids and mafic dykes. These processes can be divided into four magma activities based on detailed U-Pb dating: 1) The late Triassic post-collisional rocks (230–200 Ma, Chen et al., 2003; Yang et al., 2005; Guo et al., 2005; Zhang. L et al., 2020) consisting of quartz syenite, pyroxene syenite, and alkaline gabbro, distributed in the Sulu orogenic belt and represented by Shidao, Ningjinsuo, and Chashan intrusions. 2) The late Jurassic calc-alkaline granites (160–141 Ma, Yang et al., 2012; Ma et al., 2013; Li et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2022), which occur as a large batholith and are composed of biotite monzogranite, monzodiorite, quartz diorite, and granodiorite, such as Linglong, Kunyushan, Queshan and Wendeng plutons. 3) The early stage of the Early Cretaceous high-potassium calc-alkaline granodiorite (132–123 Ma, Wang et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2014; Zhao et al., 2018). They are probable mixed crust-mantle components and are represented by the Sanshandao, Shangzhuang, Beijie, Congjia, and Guojialing intrusions (Dang et al., 2022). 4) The late period of the Early Cretaceous alkaline granites and intermediate basic dykes (118–108 Ma, Qiu et al., 2008; Ding et al., 2013; Zhao et al., 2018; Li et al., 2019; Song et al., 2020), which are composed of diorite, granodiorite, and granite assemblages (Yang et al., 2014a; Ding et al., 2015; Dang et al., 2022).
The dominant structures in the Jiaodong Peninsula are NNE-to NE-trending fault systems (Figure 1B). These faults are characterized by a parallel and uniform distribution. From west to east, they are represented by the Sanshandao, Jiaojia, Zhaoping, Qixia, Muping-Jimo, and Jinniushan faults. These structures control the distribution of the Jiaodong gold deposits, which are divided into three gold belts according to their spatial distribution and traditionally have been grouped into three main types (Figure 1B): the auriferous quartz vein type (Linglong type), the altered rock type (Jiaojia type), and the interstratified breccia type (Pengjiakuang type) (Zhang et al., 2003; Mao et al., 2008; Guo et al., 2013). The Linglong type deposits are represented by deposits at Linglong, Denggezhuang, Dayingezhuang, and Jinqingding, whereas the Jiaojia type deposits are exemplified by deposits at Sanshandao, Jiaojia, Xincheng, Xiadian, and Dayingezhuang. The Pengjiakuang type deposits include those at Pengjiakuang and Dazhuangzi.
In recent years, several gold deposits or outcrops have been discovered in the Penglai-Qixia-Fushan Gold Belt, which are represented by the Yangjiakuang and Dujiaya gold deposits. Although these deposits have a similar fault-controlled nature of the mineralization when compared to the traditional three types of Jiaodong deposits, they are characterized by the fact that the gold deposits are hosted in the Paleoproterozoic Fenzishan Group which consist of metamorphic rocks. The detailed geology, mineralization, and alterations are summarized below.
2.2 Deposit geology
The Yangjiakuang gold deposit is located in the Qixia-Penglai-Fushan Gold Belt and belongs to the Jiaobei uplift in the Northeastern margin of the North China Craton (Li et al., 2005; Ding et al., 2015; Song et al., 2015) (Figure 1B). The area mainly exposes thick dolomite marble with biotite granulite, tremolite schist, and tremolite marble in the Paleoproterozoic Zhanggezhuang Formation of the Fenzishan Group, followed by thin-layer calcareous slate, siliceous slate, phyletic slate, and dolomite marble in the Neoproterozoic Baoshankou Formation of the Penglai Group. Mesozoic dykes are developed in the area, including quartz diorite porphyrite, lamprophyre, and pegmatite. All of them are filled with irregular veins and lenticular faults in different directions.
The structure in the area is dominated by a syncline. Mineralization is structurally controlled by the Yangjiakuang syncline in this area. The axis of the syncline, distributed in an EW direction, is located in the west of the Yangjiakuang village (Figure 1). The stratum of the axis consists of the third member of the Zhanggezhuang Formation in the Fenzishan Group, and the two wings consist of the second member, and the first member of the Zhanggezhuang Formation (Figure 2). The strata of the wings present as a reverse sequence. The Western end of the syncline is cut by NNE trending faults, and the eastern end of the syncline dips. The faults are divided into NNE and EW groups. The shape and scale of the Yangjiakuang gold deposit are controlled by the Yangjiakuang syncline. The gold ore body occurs mainly in the marble of the Paleoproterozoic Fenzishan Group, and it is controlled by the interlayer detachment structure and the NE trending fault (Zhang et al., 2004).
FIGURE 2. Geological sketch map of the Yangjiakuang gold deposit (after Ding, 2014). 1. Quaternary; 2. Slate (Baoshankou Formation); 3. Dolomite marble (Third member of the Zhanggezhuang Formation); 4. Diorite marble (Second member of the Zhanggezhuang Formation); 5. Dolomite marble (First member of the Zhanggezhuang Formation); 6. Quartz diorite porphyrite; 7. Gold orebody; 8. Sample location.
Both No. III and No. Ⅳ gold orebodies that were explored in the Yangjiakuang deposit are controlled by the Yangjiakuang syncline (Yu et al., 2014). The shape of gold orebody is V-shaped (Figure 2). No. Ⅲ gold orebody is located in dolomite marble of the third member of Zhanggezhuang Formation near the axis of the structure of Yangjiakuang syncline and has a length of about 950 m and a width of 10–70 m. No. Ⅳ gold orebody is hosted in the contact zone between the second and third members of the Zhanggezhuang Formation and has a length of 850 m and a width of 5–16 m (Figure 3), whose proven gold resource is 1.02 t. No. III gold orebody is the largest in the Yangjiakuang deposit and strikes EW, dips to the north at 20–30°, and has a length of 300 m, and a thickness of 4.2–18.0 m. The gold proven resource is 2.58 t. The grade of gold varies from 2.5 to 4.5 g/t, with an average value of 3.79 g/t. The boundary between the orebody and the ore-bearing rock is not clear and shows a gradual transitional relationship, which is determined solely by the grade of gold. The ore-bearing rock near the orebody is mainly sericite cataclastic marble, followed by granulite, amphibolite, diorite, slate, etc. The quartz diorite porphyry dyke located in the west of Yangjiakuang gold deposit cuts through No. Ⅲ gold orebody (Figure 4A), which should be close to or later than the gold mineralization. The strike is mostly 0°–10° and dips 75° to East, and measure 5–20 m in width and 750 m in length. The quartz diorite porphyrite is gray and featured a massive porphyritic structure. The phenocrysts were composed of plagioclase and quartz, and the substrate was composed of plagioclase, amphibole, biotite, and quartz. The content of plagioclase was 65%, which was an idiomorphic plate with lamellar twins; the hornblende content was 5%–10% with an idiomorphic plate; the quartz content was about 15%, the phenocryst melting corrosion was round, and the matrix was granular in nature; the K-feldspar content was 10%–15%, appearing in the matrix in the form of lath.
FIGURE 3. Geological profile along No. 252 line of the Yangjiakuang gold deposit, showing the sampling sites in this study (after Yu et al., 2014). 1. Quaternary; 2. Second member of the Zhanggezhuang Formation; 3. Third member of the Zhanggezhuang Formation; 4. Gold vein; 5. Drill hole; 6. Drilling shallow well; 7. Sample location.
FIGURE 4. Photographs showing mineral assemblages and mineralization stages in the Yangjiakuang gold deposit (A) Quartz diorite porphyrite dyke cutting through the gold orebody; (B) Disseminated-type ore; (C,D) Veinlet-type ore; (E,F) Irregular native gold inclusions within Py; (G,H) Micrographs of Py1 and Py2; (I) Quartz and calcite vein; Mineral abbreviations used are as follows: Py, Pyrite; Cal, Calcite; Ng, Natural gold.
Disseminated- and veinlet-type ores can be observed in the Yangjiakuang gold deposit (Figures 4B–D). Ore minerals are dominated by pyrite with lesser amounts of chalcopyrite, sphalerite, arsenopyrite, and magnetite. The main precious metals are natural gold, silver-bearing natural gold and natural silver. The gangue minerals consist of quartz, calcite, and sericite, with subordinate chlorite, epidote, tremolite, graphite, and barite. The main elements in the ore are Au, followed by Ag. Gold occurs mostly as natural gold and silver-bearing natural gold. The microscopic observations show that the visible gold mainly occurs as filling microfractures in pyrite or as inclusions in pyrite and less commonly in calcite (Figures 4E, F). Native gold grains are generally less than 10 μm.
Three hydrothermal stages can be recognized in the Yangjiakuang gold deposit, on the basis of field evidence and microscopic texture, from oldest to youngest they are: the pyrite-sericite stage (I), the gold, polymetallic sulfide, and quartz stage (II), and quartz-calcite Stage (III). Stage I is represented by an assemblage of quartz, sericite and pyrite. The pyrite of this stage is euhedral, with 3–10 μm in size and essentially barren of gold (Figures 4G, H). The quartz is milky white and fine-grained. The sericite is distributed in fine grain orientation. Stage II is characterized by gold-bearing fine pyrite, quartz, and a small amount of chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, and calcite. A large amount of gold-bearing pyrites are formed in this stage (Figures 4G, H), which represents the main gold mineralization stage. Stage III is dominated by carbonate minerals (mainly calcite) and quartz (Figure 4I). They often occur as micro-to macroscopic veinlet-shaped forms. This is the latest mineralization stage.
Hydrothermal alteration is widespread, including sericitization, silicification, pyritization, carbonation, chloritization, and tremolite. The silicification, pyritization, and sericitization are closely related to gold mineralization (Wang et al., 2017). There is a gradual transitional relationship between the gold orebody and the surrounding rocks (Figure 5). The core of the gold orebody is mainly composed of quartz, sericite, and pyrite. The sericite is distributed in a scale-like orientation, quartz is arranged in an allomorphic granular orientation, and pyrite occurs in a veined and disseminated form. The wall rock near the orebody is composed of quartz, sericite, and a small amount of calcite, which developed silicification and sericitization alteration. In the wall rock distant to the orebody, the mineral compositions are mainly protolith, and quartz and calcite veinlets which formed by the late alteration and filled along the fractures.
FIGURE 5. Diagram of wall-rock alteration zone for the Yangjiakuang gold deposit. 1. Gold vein; 2. Auriferous pyrite-quartz vein; 3. Sericitization zone; 4. Carbonation zone.
3 Analytical methods
Except for the quartz diorite porphyry dyke which was mined in the shallow surface, all of the samples were mined underground in tunnels of depth 60 m.
In situ S isotope analyses of five samples from different stage sulfides in thin sections were performed by LA-MC-ICP-MS at the State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan). The analytical methods are based on Bendall et al. (2006) and Craddock et al. (2008). A Nu Plasma II MC-ICP-MS equipped with a Resolution-S155 excimer ArF laser ablation system was used for the analyses. The detailed experimental procedures and instrument test parameters were conducted according to Liu et al. (2018), Tian et al. (2020) and Xu Y. W. et al (2022).
He-Ar isotope analyses were performed at the Analytical and Testing Center in the Beijing Institute of Geological Research of Nuclear Industry, Beijing. The Helix SFT™ Split Flight Tube noble gas mass spectrometer was used, which had blank background signals of less than 5 × 10−14 ccSTP, a Faraday cup resolution greater than 400, and an ion multiplier resolution better than 700. The sensitivity of the He and Ar measurements were better than 2 × 10−4 A/Torr and 1 × 10−3A/Torr, respectively. Four samples corresponding to stage II were measured. The analytical procedures adopted were the same as those described by Wang (2016), Tian et al. (2020) and Xu Y. et al (2022).
Lead isotope analyses were performed by a thermal ionization mass spectrometer (ISOPROBE-T) at the Beijing Institute of Geological Research of Nuclear Industry. The measured Pb isotopic ratio measurements for the international standard NBS 981 are around 0.1‰. The analytical values for the standard NBS 981 were as follows: 206Pb/204Pb = 16.937 ± 0.002 (2σ), 207Pb/204Pb = 15.457 ± 0.002 (2σ), and 208Pb/204Pb = 272 36.611 ± 0.004 (2σ) (Tian et al., 2020).
In order to constrain the timing of the main mineralization, eight calcites were collected for Sm-Nd dating. The calcite of the Yangjiakuang gold deposit was milky white and veinlet, coexisting with disseminated pyrite and other gold-bearing minerals. The aforementioned samples were collected and pulverized in the field to 40–60 mesh, and calcite was selected with the aid of a binocular lens, The sample, of purity better than 99%, was rinsed with distilled water, steam dried at low temperature, and then ground to about 200 mesh in the agate mortar prior to testing. Analyses of the Sm-Nd isotopes were carried out at the Isotope Geochronology Laboratory of the Tianjin Center, China Geological Survey. A description of the separation processes including the use of a specific resin are given elsewhere (Liu et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2018; Li et al., 2020), and the isochron age was calculated by the ISOPLOT program.
The U-Pb isotopic dating of zircon by LA-ICP-MS was undertaken in the laboratory of isotopic geochronology of the Tianjin Center, China Geological Survey. First, Zircons were separated from the quartz diorite porphyry dyke (SD74B2) using conventional crushing and sieving followed by standard heavy liquid and magnetic separation before pure separates were obtained by hand-picking under a binocular microscope at the Hebei Institute of Regional Geological and Mineral Resource Survey (Langfang). The separated zircons were then mounted in epoxy and polished to expose grain center for optical microscopy and cathodoluminescence (CL) imaging to identify target areas for U-Pb analyses (Figure 6).
FIGURE 6. CL images and U-Pb data of zircons in diorite porphyrite (SD74B2).
Zircon LA-ICP-MS U-Pb analysis was undertaken in the laboratory of isotopic geochronology of the Tianjin Center, China Geological Survey. This analysis used laser energy and frequency settings of 13–14 J/cm2 and 9 Hz, respectively, with a spot size of 35 μm. Helium was used as a carrier gas, and each analysis incorporated a background acquisition of ∼20 s (gas blank), followed by 40 s of acquisition (ablated sample). GJ-1 was used as the external standard for the zircon age with correction for fractionation in the U-Pb isotope measurement (Jackson et al., 2004). The DataCal program for ICP-MS developed by Liu et al. (2010) and the Isoplot program developed by Ludwig (2003) were used for data processing. The isotopic data for the common lead was corrected by the 208Pb correction method (Andersen, 2002). The Pb, U, and Th contents of the zircon samples were calculated based on using the NIST 610 glass standard as an external standard. Please consult Li et al. (2009) for full information on the instrument operating procedures and conditions.
4 Results
4.1 In situ sulfur isotopes
In situ measurements of sulfur isotopes at 18 locations on pyrite were conducted and the results are presented in Table 1. The pyrite δ34S values were distributed in a narrow range of 5.65–9.63‰, with an average value of 8.14‰. Pyrite δ34S values (n = 6) for Stage I were 8.5–9.6‰ (avg. 9.1‰) and pyrite δ34S values (n = 12) for stage II were 5.6–8.9‰ (avg. 7.6‰) (Figure 7).
TABLE 1. LA-MC-ICP-MS in situ S isotopic compositions of different hydrothermal stages of pyrites from the Yangjiakuang gold deposit.
FIGURE 7. Sulfur isotopic compositions of pyrites from the Yangjiakuang gold deposit. The ranges of major geologic units are from Tian et al., 2020; Li et al., 2021; Liu. X. Y et al., 2021.
The pyrite δ34S values for the Yangjiakuang deposit were positive in different hydrothermal stages (9.1‰ for stage I→7.6‰ for stage II), which are similar to those of other Jiaodong gold deposits (e.g., Linglong deposit = 5.6–7.9‰, Guo et al., 2020; Dayingezhuang deposit = 4.8–9.0‰, Yuan et al., 2019; Heilangou deposit = 5.5–7.8‰; Xincheng deposit = 7.2–9.7‰, Majiayao deposit = 6.0–10.7‰, Tian et al., 2020 and Zhaoxian deposit = 6.0–10.7‰, Xu et al., 2022). These results indicate that the source of sulfur for the Yangjiakuang gold deposit was similar to the other neighboring gold deposits.
4.2 Helium-argon isotopes
The Helium and argon isotopic compositions of pyrites from different mineralization stages are shown in Table 2. The 3He values for the fluid inclusions in pyrites ranged from 3.587 to 5.016 × 10−13 cm3 STP/g, with an average value of 4.516 × 10−13 cm3STP/g; the 4He values ranged from 31.61 to 78.63 × 10−8 cm3STP/g, with an average value of 53.95 × 10−8 cm3STP/g. The 3He/4He ratios ranged from 0.641 to 1.132 Ra, with an average value of 0.901 Ra (Table 2). In the evolution diagram for the 3He-4He isotopes, the Helium and Argon isotopic values are projected in the crust and mantle transition field (Figure 8). In the diagram of Rc/Ra-40Ar/36Ar, the Helium and Argon isotopic values are also projected in the crust and mantle transition field which is near the meteoric water (Figure 9). The results show that the ore-forming fluids represent a mixture of crust and mantle fluids, and litter meteoric water.
TABLE 2. He and Ar isotopic compositions of fluid inclusions in pyrites from the Yangjiakuang gold deposit.
FIGURE 8. Helium isotopic compositions of fluid inclusions in pyrites from the Yangjiakuang gold deposit (after Mamyrin & Tolstikhin, 1984). 1. Initial argon; 2. Mantle argon; 3. Crustal argon.
FIGURE 9. Plot of Rc/Ra–40Ar/36Ar ratios of fluid inclusions in pyrites from the Yangjiakuang gold deposit.
4.3 Lead isotopes
The lead isotope ratios for seven pyrites were measured and the results are presented in Table 3. The values for 206Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb, and 208Pb/204Pb ranged from 16.615 to 16.832, 15.275 to 15.403, and 36.829 to 37.470, respectively. All the lead isotope values plotted in the field correspond to a lower crustal origin as per the diagram of lead isotope tectonic environments created by Zartman and Doe (1981) (Figure 10).
TABLE 3. Lead isotopic compositions of pyrites from the Yangjiakuang gold deposit.
FIGURE 10. 206Pb/204Pb–207Pb/204Pb diagram of the Yangjiakuang gold deposit (after Zartman & Doe, 1981).
LC, lower crust; UC, upper crust; OIV, ocean island volcanic; OR, orogenic belts.
The region of Pb isotopes for the Jiaodong sulfide or ore is determined by Liu. Z. K et al., 2021.
4.4 Calcite Sm-Nd age
The Sm-Nd isotopic dating for eight calcites were measured and the results are shown in Table 4.
TABLE 4. Sm-Nd isotopic compositions of calcites from the Yangjiakuang gold deposit.
The mass fractions for Sm and Nd of calcites ranged from 1.23 to 4.73 × 10−6 and 5.90 to 17.18 × 10−6 with 147Sm/144Nd and 143Nd/144Nd values ranging from 0.1045 to 0.1664 and 0.511135 to 0.511185, respectively. The 147Sm/144Nd and 143Nd/144Nd values for calcites exhibited a good linear relationship. An isochronous age of 123.5 ± 8.1 Ma (MSWD = 0.042) and an initial 143Nd/144Nd value of 0.5110504 for calcites were obtained (Figure 11). It represents that the Yangjiakuang gold mineralization is the early period of Early Cretaceous.
FIGURE 11. Diagram of calcite Sm-Nd isochronous age for the Yangjiakuang gold deposit.
4.5 Zircon U-Pb dating
Zircons from the quartz diorite porphyrite dyke (SD74B2) in the Yangjiakuang gold deposit were mostly short columns, with high transparency, euhedral or subhedral, about 60 µm–90 µm in length. The zircons had a typical magmatic concussion zone. Representative CL images are shown in Figure 6. The U content for the zircons ranged from 289 × 10−6 ∼ 1603 × 10−5 and the Th content was from 36 × 10−7 ∼ 579 × 10−6. The Th/U ratios ranged from 0.12 to 0.73 and the average value was 0.26 (Table 5; Figure 12). The results for the ages of 24 analysis points were relatively concentrated and they could be classified into three groups. The first group was the magmatic zircon age consisting of 21 analysis results. This age was concentrated on the consistent curve on the harmonic map of Figure 11. The range for the 206Pb/238U age was 126–121 Ma, and the weighted average age was 122.75 ± 0.66 Ma (MSWD = 1.5) (Figure 12), which represents the emplacement age of the quartz diorite porphyrite dyke. The second group was the inherited zircon age, which consisted of three analysis results. The 206Pb/238U ages for sample No. 3 and sample No. 8 were 2472 Ma and 2490 Ma, respectively. It is speculated that these ages represent the inherited zircon ages of ancient gneiss in the Jiaodong area. The third group has only one inherited zircon age (sample No. 24), the apparent age being 151 Ma, which may reflect the inherited zircon age of Linglong granite.
TABLE 5. LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb data for the quartz diorite porphyrite dyke.
FIGURE 12. Zircon U-Pb Concordia diagram for the quartz diorite porphyrite dyke (SD74B2).
5 Discussion
5.1 Mineralization age
Based on various isotopic dating methods (e.g., hydrothermal zircon U-Pb dating, hydrothermal monazite U-Pb dating, mineralization related muscovite Ar-Ar dating), decades of geochronological research on large-scale gold mineralization in the Jiaodong Peninsula indicate an episode of gold mineralization was 130–120 Ma (Luo and Miao, 2002; Zhai et al., 2004; Chen et al., 2005; Fan et al., 2005; Li et al., 2005; Li et al., 2008; Yang et al., 2014b; Zhu et al., 2015; Li and Santosh, 2017; Deng et al., 2020b, 2020c; Zhang. H. Y et al., 2020). Li et al. (2020) proposed that there were two large-scale gold mineralization events, including the early period of Early Cretaceous (126–120 Ma), which formed the Laizhou-Zhaoyuan and Qixia-Penglai-Fushan Gold Belts in the north-west of Jiaodong terrane, and the late period of Early Cretaceous (110–104 Ma), forming the Muping-Rushan Gold Belt in the north-east of the Jiaodong terrane (Li et al., 2020).
Recent studies have shown that strong fractionation between rare Earth elements can occur during the formation of hydrothermal deposits, leading to large changes in Sm and Nd contents in some hydrothermal minerals, reaching values far higher than the normal values of crustal rocks. This discovery lays a foundation for the application of Sm-Nd isotopes in metallogenic chronology (Zhao & Jiang, 2004). Calcium-bearing minerals are always rich in rare Earth elements, making fluorite, calcite, and other calcium-bearing minerals to be the ideal targets for Sm-Nd isotopic dating of hydrothermal deposits (Bell et al., 1989; Jiang et al., 2000; Brugger et al., 2002; Li et al., 2006; Jahn et al., 2008; Peng et al., 2008; Li et al., 2020). The calcite is the main mineral formed during the metallizing stage in the Yangjiakuang and Tudui gold deposits, and contains natural gold in the calcite quartz veinlets (Ding et al., 2015; Zhang, 2018). Therefore, the calcite can represent the age of main gold mineralization. This paper yields calcite Sm-Nd isochron age as 123.5 ± 8.1 Ma, which represents the main gold metallogenic stage (II) at Yangjiakuang gold deposit.
LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating for quartz diorite porphyrite dyke is 122.75 ± 0.66 Ma, which represents the post-mineralization age. In summary, the mineralization of Yangjiakuang gold deposit is the early period of Early Cretaceous, and it is consistent with the first large-scale gold mineralization in Jiaodong Peninsula.
5.2 Source of the ore-forming materials and fluids
The δ34S values of sulfides from the Yangjiakuang gold deposit vary from 5.65 to 9.63‰, with an average value of 8.14‰. This narrow range of sulfur isotope compositions suggests that the physicochemical parameters of the mineralizing fluids were relatively constant (Saravanan and Mishra, 2009; Li et al., 2012). In addition, the sulfide assemblage is simple and dominated by pyrite, and thus the δ34S values of pyrite can be used for tracing the source of ore fluids (Kajiwara and Krouse, 1971; Ohmoto, 1972).
The values of the sulfur isotopes observed are clearly larger than those of magmatic-derived sulfur. Combined with the geologic constraints, at least five sources might account for such sulfur signatures: Precambrian basement, Paleoproterozoic Fenzishan Group, Mesozoic granitoid intrusions, mafic dykes, or multiple sources. Previous studies reported that the sulfur isotopic values of the Fenzishan Group, the Jiaodong Group, the Jurassic-Cretaceous granites, and the Cretaceous dykes were 5.6–12.0‰, 0.0–10.8‰, 2.0–9.9‰, and -3.4–9.9‰, respectively (Figure 7) (Yang et al., 2005; Li et al., 2015; Guo et al., 2017; Deng et al., 2020a). However, the metamorphic devolatization of the Precambrian basement cannot provide sulfur and mineralizing fluids directly, although the Fenzishan Group has similar δ34S values to the sulfide ores studied (Tan et al., 2015). The apparent time gap (20–40 Ma) between the gold mineralization and the Jurassic granitoids (Linglong granite) (160–150 Ma, Yang et al., 2012; Ma et al., 2013; Li et al., 2019) precludes a hydrothermal link between these two. In addition, the Cretaceous intermediate dyke (118–108 Ma, Qiu et al., 2008; Ding et al., 2013; Zhao et al., 2018; Li et al., 2019; Song et al., 2020), also cannot provide the source of ore-forming sulfur, because of its formation later than that of gold mineralization. The potential candidate for the source of sulfur may be represented by Guojialing granite that intruded intensively in this district. Integrating the values with the aforementioned δ34S values of the Fenzishan Group, we suggest that there were multi-sources for the sulfur in the ore system via magmatic-derived fluids leaching from the Fenzishan Group.
The noble gases have distinct isotopic compositions in the different reservoirs, and the magnitude of the isotopic ratio values can signify the presence of crust and mantle components during the ore-forming processes (Kendrick and Burnard, 2013). Therefore, noble gases can be used as an ideal tracer for the crust and mantle contributions to ore-forming fluids (Turner et al., 1993; Stuart et al., 1995). The 3He/4He ratios for the fluid inclusions in pyrite ranged from 0.64 to 1.13 Ra with an average value of 0.90 Ra (Table 2), which is 1–2 orders of magnitude higher than the crustal values (0.01–0.05 Ra, Burnard et al., 1999) but lower than the mantle values (6–9 Ra, Stuart et al., 1995), revealing a mixing between the crustal and mantle-derived components in the ore-forming fluids. In the 4He vs. 3He plot, the 3He and 4He isotopic compositions are between the mantle Helium line and the crustal Helium line (Figure 8). In the R/Ra vs. 40Ar/36Ar plot (Figure 9), the He and Ar isotopic compositions spread between the mantle field and the crustal field. All these He-Ar isotopic signatures suggest that the ore-forming fluid at Yangjiakuang gold deposit can be regard as a combination of crustal and mantle components.
Lead isotope is a useful indicator for the source of ore-forming materials. The Pb isotopic compositions of pyrites were characterized by a crust-mantle mixing. In the 207Pb/204Pb vs. 206Pb/204Pb diagram, the pyrites yield a similar lead isotopic compositions and plot in the compositions area of the upper crust (Figure 10). In light of the overlapping field in the Pb isotope diagram (Figure 10), the metamorphic basement of the Jiaodong and Fenzishan Groups, as a member of the lower crust, is suggested as the most likely source of Pb. There is the possibility that the mineralizing fluids selectively leached Pb from the Jiaodong and Fenzishan Groups.
5.3 Geodynamic significance
The age of Yangjiakuang gold mineralization is the early period of Early Cretaceous, which is consistent with the first large-scale gold mineralization in Jiaodong terrane. As it discussed above, the potential candidate for the source of ore-forming materials and fluids may be represented by the Guojialing granites. The S-He-Ar-Pb isotopes suggest that the ore-forming materials of the Yangjiakuang gold deposit may originate from a mixture of crustal and mantle components. The deep crust-mantle derived magma (Guojialing granite) maybe provide the heat sources in the extensional regime for melt and fluid circulation, and then the ore fluid can be separated during the ascent into the upper crust and leached the ore-forming materials from the Fenzishan Group, the Jiaodong Group and the Guojialing granite.
This metallogenic event is widely developed in the Jiaodong gold province. It is suggested that the extensional tectonic inversion event triggering gold mineralization was related to the rollback of the subducting Izanagi plate. Most researchers agree that the Izanagi Plate was subducted beneath northeastern China at ca. 170 Ma (Isozaki, 1997; Maruyama et al., 1997; Zhu et al., 2018). The initial subduction of the plate was rapid and low angle, generating compressive stress in eastern China (Zhang and Zhang., 2007). This low angle subduction meant that the Izanagi Plate was located below northeastern China, thickening and compressing the already thickened orogenic crust formed by earlier continental collisional events, which caused partial melting of the lower crust and lithospheric delamination (Dang et al., 2022). The loss of the lithospheric keel caused the asthenospheric upwelling, lithospheric extension and thinning in the Early Cretaceous. This was associated with the steepening of the angle and the associated rollback of the subducting Izanagi Plate. In an extensional regime, eastern NCC witnessed craton destruction or decratonization (Wu et al., 2005; Yang and Li, 2008; Zhu et al., 2015), regional tectonic inversion and strong crust-mantle interaction (Menzies and Xiu., 1998; Cai et al., 2013), which led to partial melting and dehydration of the lithospheric mantle and the lower crust as the temperature increased (Yang et al., 2003; Tan et al., 2015; Wen et al., 2015; Guo et al., 2020), and form a large-scale high heat flow, extensive crust-mantle mixture magmas. The magma migrated upward to the upper crust, subsequent magma mixing and the exsolved fluids extracted the ore-forming elements from the enclosing rocks to form the ore-forming fluids.
6 Conclusion
(1) The calcites which represent the main gold metallogenic stage (II) yielded a Sm-Nd isochron age of 123.5 ± 8.1 Ma (MSWD = 0.042). Subsequent geologic events were recorded by quartz diorite porphyrite dyke which are dated at 122.75 ± 0.66 Ma (MSWD = 1.5) by zircon LA-ICP-MS U-Pb dating. It is suggested that the Yangjiakuang gold mineralization took place in the early period of Early Cretaceous, which coincided with the first large-scale gold mineralization in the Jiaodong Peninsula.
(2) The S-Pb-He-Ar isotope compositions of pyrites in the Yangjiakuang gold deposit suggest that the ore-forming materials and fluids are characterized by a mixture of crustal and mantle components.
(3) The gold mineralization is associated with extensional tectonic inversion caused by the rollback of the subducting Izanagi Plate during the early Cretaceous.
Data availability statement
The datasets presented in this study can be found in online repositories. The names of the repository/repositories and accession number(s) can be found in the article/Supplementary Material.
Author contributions
J-JL is the first corresponding author of this article, responsible for comprehensive technical guidance in the research process, comprehensively analyzed the test data and wrote the first draft of the article; Z-CD is the second corresponding author of this article. He participated in field investigation and sample collection, conducted surfer and lead isotope analysis and testing, and participated in the reviewing and finalizing the paper. CF carried out zircon U-Pb dating and participated in the revision of the manuscript. P-PZ, J-PT, and J-TH participated in sample collection and microscopic observation, data processing and isotope dating, and the revision of the manuscript. All authors contributed to the manuscript revision, read, and approved the submitted version.
Funding
The National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grant 2016YFC0600107) and projects from the China Geological Survey (Grants DD20190379-31, DD20221695-30 and 200110200038) support the financial of this work.
Acknowledgments
We thank the National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grant 2016YFC0600107) and projects from the China Geological Survey (Grants DD20190379-31, DD20221695-30 and 200110200038) for financial support for this work. The State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources [China University of Geosciences (Wuhan)], and the Beijing Institute of Geological Research of Nuclear Industry and Tianjin Center of China Geological Survey are thanked for supporting the laboratory analyses. We are grateful to Prof. Li Xiu-Zhang, Zhang Pi-Jian and Liao Xiao-Ming for field assistance and to Prof. Zhou Hong-Ying, Geng Jian-Zhen and Liu Wen-Gang for help with Sm-Nd and U-Pb isotopic dating.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Publisher’s note
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Keywords: S-He-Ar-Pb isotopes, Sm-Nd isochron age, LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating, Yangjiakuang gold deposit, Jiaodong peninsula
Citation: Li J-J, Dang Z-C, Fu C, Zhang P-P, Tian J-P and He J-T (2023) Genesis of the Yangjiakuang gold deposit, Jiaodong peninsula, China: Constraints from S-He-Ar-Pb isotopes, and Sm-Nd and U-Pb geochronology. Front. Earth Sci. 11:1048509. doi: 10.3389/feart.2023.1048509
Received: 19 September 2022; Accepted: 17 January 2023;
Published: 27 January 2023.
Edited by:
Liang Zhang, China University of Geosciences, ChinaReviewed by:
Jilong Han, China University of Geosciences, ChinaQingquan Liu, Central South University, China
Binghan Chen, Institute of Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, China
Copyright © 2023 Li, Dang, Fu, Zhang, Tian and He. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Jun-Jian Li, tjlijunjian@163.com; Zhi-Cai Dang, dangzhicai@163.com