Temporal Evolution of Island Arc Magmatism and Its Influence on Long-Term Climate: Insights From the Izu Intra-Oceanic Arc

Continental arcs have an episodic magmatic activity over long-time periods, which is believed to modulate long-term climate. Island arcs have also the potential to release large amount of CO₂ into the atmosphere, but whether they display an episodic magmatic history throughout their lifespan that contributes to the long-term (>10 Ma) climate changes remains an open question. To set additional constraints on the magmatic history of island arcs, here we examine fresh basalts and mineral-hosted melt inclusions from the Izu intra-oceanic arc, shortly after the eruption of boninites (∼45 Ma ago). Using chemical markers, we show that the long-term magmatic activity of the mature Izu arc has been relatively continuous over its lifespan, except during opening of the Shikoku back-arc Basin (∼23–20 Ma). Because slab dehydration and slab melting trigger decarbonation and carbonate dissolution of the subducted plate, we use slab-fluid markers (Ba/Th, Cs/Th, Cs/Ba, Rb/Th, Th/Nb) to examine the variations of slab-derived CO₂ captured by the arc magmas. The long-term steadiness in the arc magmatic activity and in the slab-fluid contribution suggests that the CO₂ outgassed during mature arc volcanism may have remained relatively homogeneous for the past 40 Ma in Izu. If worldwide mature island arcs also maintain a relatively steady-state magmatic activity over their lifespan, the long-term CO₂ outgassed by these arc volcanoes may be rapidly balanced by chemical weathering and tectonic erosion, which rapidly draw down the atmospheric CO₂ (within 200–300 kyr). This rapid negative feedback to long-term volcanic degassing permits to sustain a viable atmospheric CO₂ for millions of years. The lack of co-variations between the markers of climate changes (δ¹³O, δ¹⁸C) and the long-term averages of the markers of slab fluids further implies that long-term volcanic degassing of CO₂ from mature island arcs might play a minor role in the slide into icehouse climatic conditions. This long-term degassing stability may be, instead, a contributor to maintaining a broadly stable climate over long timescales.

Introduction

The exchanges in volatile species (H₂O, CO₂, S, Cl) between the Earth’s surface and its interior have played a central role in sustaining planet habitability for hundreds of millions of years. Subduction zones have efficiently cycled volatiles between the ocean–atmosphere and the mantle over geological times (Kerrick, 2001; Berner, 2005) by replenishing the volatile supply into the interior of the Earth. The release of subducted seawater back into the asthenospheric mantle triggers arc volcanism (Grove et al., 2006), which has contributed to maintain liveable conditions on Earth. However, it is still unclear whether the emission of volcanic CO₂ by island arcs has the potential to affect long-term climate changes (>10 Ma) (Sleep and Zahnle, 2001; Dasgupta and Hirschmann, 2010; Eguchi et al., 2020). Island arcs have been proposed to play a minor role on the long-term climate fluctuations, as continental arcs intersecting carbonate platforms may dominate the volcanic CO₂ released into the atmosphere during flare-ups (i.e., periods of high magma addition) (Berner, 1999; Lee et al., 2013; McKenzie et al., 2016; Cao et al., 2017; Mason et al., 2017). Despite their potential to release large amounts of volcanic CO₂ in the atmosphere (Marty and Tolstikhin, 1998; Hilton et al., 2002; Dasgupta and Hirschmann, 2010; Johnston et al., 2011; Kelemen and Manning, 2015), lack of magmatic records throughout their lifespan hinders our current understanding of the potential role of island arcs on past climate variations. Such knowledge gaps have raised questions such as: to what extent volcanic degassing in island arcs might have caused past climate fluctuations? Does it control the long-term (>10 Ma, such as greenhouse-icehouse climates or climate optimum) or the short-term (≤ 1 Ma) climate variations (e.g., Milankovitch cycles)?

The Izu intra-oceanic arc is a long-lived subduction zone, which initiated about 52 Ma ago (Stern and Bloomer, 1992; Ishizuka et al., 2006; Reagan et al., 2010; Ishizuka et al., 2011a; Shervais et al., 2019). Drilling expeditions (e.g., IODP Expeditions 350 and 352, and ODP Sites 782 and 786) have provided unique, high-resolution records of the magmatic sequences that erupted throughout the lifespan of the Izu arc (Straub and Layne, 2003; Straub et al., 2004; Busby et al., 2017; Reagan et al., 2017; Reagan et al., 2019; Shervais et al., 2021). The Izu intra-oceanic arc thus represents an ideal location to examine the temporal evolution of island arc magmatism and slab-derived fluids since arc inception (Ishizuka et al., 2011b; Reagan et al., 2019; Shervais et al., 2021), and their influence on past climate change. To set additional constraints onto the processes that control arc magmatic activity, we examine the composition of the Izu arc magmas that erupted shortly after the termination of boninitic magmatism (∼45 Ma ago) (Ishizuka et al., 2011a; Ishizuka et al., 2011b; Reagan et al., 2017; Reagan et al., 2019; Ishizuka et al., 2020). Building on previous work (Gill et al., 1994; Bryant et al., 2003; Straub, 2003; Straub et al., 2010; Straub et al., 2015; Aiuppa et al., 2017), we use chemical markers to examine the temporal variations in i) the extent of mantle melting, ii) the length of the melting column (and hence, in the arc crustal thickness), iii) mantle flow and mantle source compositions, and iv) in water-rich and solute-rich slab fluids released from the subducted Pacific plate spanning over the life of the Izu arc. Correlations between the slab-fluid markers and the CO₂/S_T ratios outgassed by worldwide island arcs (Aiuppa et al., 2017) demonstrate that slab dehydration and slab melting drive slab decarbonation (Ague and Nicolescu, 2014; Vitale Brovarone et al., 2018). Therefore, the temporal variations in markers of water-rich slab fluids (Ba/Th, Cs/Th, Cs/Ba, Rb/Th) and sediment-derived melts (Th/Nb) are further utilized to track the variations in slab-derived CO₂ released during volcanism over the lifetime of the Izu arc. Finally, we discuss the implications of our results to explore whether volcanic degassing by mature island arcs has played a central role on long-term climate changes for the past 45 Ma.

Geological History of the Izu Intra-Oceanic Arc

The Izu convergent margin represents the northern part of the Izu-Bonin-Mariana (IBM) intra-oceanic arc system (Figure 1) (Ishizuka et al., 2006; Reagan et al., 2010; Ishizuka et al., 2011a; Reagan et al., 2019). The Pacific plate began to subduct underneath the Philippine Sea plate about 52 Ma ago. To the north, the Izu arc is colliding with the Japan arc, forming the Izu peninsula (Saito and Tani, 2017). Lack of sedimentary cover in the IBM fore-arc exposes the oceanic crust that formed during the early stages of the subduction zone to the surface (Stern et al., 2003).

FIGURE 1

FIGURE 1. Locality maps. (A) Location of the Izu-Bonin-Mariana intra-oceanic arc system in the Western Pacific. The red box shows the area of (B). (B) Location map of the northern Izu convergent margin. A 100-km wide extensional zone that extends westward from the active rifts, as represented by the blue dashed lines. The location of the IODP and ODP drilling sites used in this study are also plotted. Figure is modified after http://publications.iodp.org/scientific_prospectus/350/ and Straub (2003).

The IBM early arc (also named infant arc hereafter) emplaced shortly after the termination of boninitic volcanism ∼45 Ma ago (Ishizuka et al., 2011a). It was composed of small and scattered submarine volcanoes within 90–100 km from the trench (Ishizuka et al., 2011a; Ishizuka et al., 2020; Kanayama et al., 2012, 2014). Infant arc volcanoes progressively evolved into a mature, thicker-crust volcanic arc that is currently located at ∼ 150–200 km from the trench. The mature arc volcanoes now overlie a deeper portion of the subducted Pacific slab (∼100 km depth). The release of slab fluids from the deeper part of the subducted plate has progressively conferred an arc fingerprint to the arc magmas (Hochstaedter et al., 2001; Straub, 2003; Straub and Layne, 2003; Tollstrup et al., 2010; Ribeiro et al., 2019). The arc magmatic activity has become more focused and has rapidly stabilized in its current location around 41 Ma (Ishizuka et al., 2011a; Kanayama et al., 2012, 2014; Ribeiro et al., 2019). The mature volcanic arc front has thus started forming within 10 Ma of subduction inception (Ishizuka et al., 2006; Straub et al., 2010; Ishizuka et al., 2011b; Straub et al., 2015; Ribeiro et al., 2019; Ishizuka et al., 2020).

In Izu, opening of the Shikoku back-arc Basin at ∼ 29–26 Ma disrupted the mature volcanic arc front, forming the Palau-Kyushu Ridge (Okino et al., 1994; Ishizuka et al., 2011b). Mature arc volcanism vanished from ∼23 to 20 Ma to accommodate opening of the Shikoku Basin (Taylor, 1992; Ishizuka et al., 2011b). The mature volcanic arc is now emplaced onto a ∼20-km thick crust (Van der Hilst and Seno, 1993; Stern et al., 2003; Takahashi et al., 2009). Recent back-arc extension (that initiated ∼2.8 Ma ago) has produced an active back-arc rift and back-arc knolls with a bimodal composition behind the Izu arc (Ishizuka et al., 2003; Tollstrup et al., 2010) (Figure 1). Opening of the Shikoku Basin and subduction-collision of the Izu-Bonin Trench with the Ogasawara Plateau triggered a rolling back of the subducted Pacific slab in Quaternary time (Van der Hilst and Seno, 1993; Wallace et al., 2005; Miller et al., 2006). The slab dip of the subducted Pacific plate thus increases southward underneath the Izu volcanic arc (Van der Hilst and Seno, 1993).

Methods

Data Compilation and Filtering

We compiled a dataset from the literature (n = 1,448) which integrates the fresh volcanic glass shards (Figure 2E) and associated melt inclusions hosted in plagioclase and clinopyroxene recently drilled in the Izu intra-oceanic arc during the IODP Expeditions 350 (Schindlbeck et al., 2018a; Schindlbeck et al., 2018b) and 352 (Kutterolf et al., 2018), as well as from the ODP Leg 126, Site 782, and ODP Leg 125, Sites 786 and 784 (Bryant et al., 2003; Straub, 2003; Straub and Layne, 2003; Straub et al., 2004; Barnes and Straub, 2010; Straub et al., 2010) (Figure 1B). Samples classified as “Izu volcanic arc front” from the IODP expeditions 350 and 352 were carefully selected. We also used the bulk rock composition of the infant arc basalts from the Bonin Islands (Ishizuka et al., 2020), as well as the bulk composition of volcaniclastics from the ODP Leg 126, Sites 792, 787, 788, 790, 791, 793 (Hiscott and Gill, 1992; Gill et al., 1994). The recent compilation of bulk analyses from the Izu arc (DeBari et al., 2020) is also included.

FIGURE 2

FIGURE 2. Classification diagrams for sample provenance. (A) K₂O, (B) La/Yb and (C) La/Sm vs. SiO₂ diagrams used to discriminate the volcaniclastics from the arc front, the back-arc basin and the Izu rear arc (Heywood et al., 2020). (D) Ba/Th vs. Nb/Yb diagram of Pearce et al. (2005) used to track the mantle and the subduction components. (E) Photomicrograph of a basaltic glass shard polished into epoxy for in situ analyses. The microphotograph was taken under a polarized microscope. WR: whole rock. Large white circles with a red outline depict the dataset of Gill et al. (1994) and Hiscott and Gill (1992); while the smaller white circles with a red outline represent the dataset of Debari et al. (2020).

Samples were screened for in situ analyses of fresh glass shards and mineral-hosted melt inclusions where available, as elements such as Rb, Cs and Ba are sensitive to alteration. Glass shards and mineral-hosted melt inclusions were carefully scrutinized for freshness by plotting their water content and trace element ratios against indices of fractionation (see Supplementary Material). Bulk rocks with a total sum of oxides equal to 100 ± 2 wt% and LOI <2 wt% were also filtered to ensure freshness. Because fractionation of some mineral phases occurring in felsic magmas (e.g., biotite, ilmenite, apatite, amphibole) can obscure their primary composition, our sample set was further filtered for basaltic composition (SiO₂ ≤ 56 wt%). Our careful screening thus ensures that incompatible element ratios can reliably track mantle and subduction processes (Pearce et al., 2005).

Our filtered dataset includes 1,217 fresh basaltic glass shards and mineral-hosted melt inclusions from tephra layers with an age ranging from 0.04 to 45.12 Ma, 89 bulk rocks from the infant Izu arc with ages ranging from 40.2 to 45.3 Ma, and 339 bulk rocks and bulk sediments from the mature arc with ages ranging from 0 to 30.9 Ma. Our new comprehensive dataset captured the full spectrum of basaltic magmas throughout the lifespan of the Izu arc. The complete dataset can be found in Supplementary Table S1. The compiled dataset of DeBari et al. (2020) is reported at: https://doi.org/10.1594/IEDA/111493.

Method Limitations

In this study, we use chemical proxies to track the temporal variations in mantle melting (TiO₂, Na₆), mantle depletion (TiO₂/Y, Nb/Yb) and slab fluids (Ba/Th, Cs/Th, Cs/Ba, Rb/Th, Th/Nb) over the lifetime of the Izu arc to examine the role of island arc magmatism on past climate changes (details are provided below). There are, however, some limitations to our approach. Despite our careful screening, alteration processes may affect magma composition. For instance, the unusually high Ba/Th and H₂O/K₂O, Rb/Th and Cs/Ba ratios observed in some magmas may reveal alteration, as there is no clear systematics between the different slab-fluid markers (Figures 6–9). Additionally, our filtering towards basaltic composition may also introduce some sample bias, as some short-term variations may only be recorded by the felsic magmas (Gill et al., 1994; Bryant et al., 2003; Straub, 2003; Straub et al., 2015). However, our careful screening aims at minimizing secondary processes (e.g., alteration, crystal fractionation, and fractional melting) to ensure that the markers reliably track primary processes (mantle source and slab fluids). For these reasons, we mainly focus on the long-term temporal variations, as some of the short-term variabilities might have been filtered out. Therefore, this approach allows us to solely examine the long-term variations in the magmatic activity of the arc (≥5 Ma) and of the climate (≥10 Ma). We cannot investigate the role of volcanic degassing on shorter timescales and its influence on short-term climate variations (<1 Ma), as well as the small magmatic cycles (≤5 Ma) that could exist in the Izu arc (Schindlbeck et al., 2018a).

Sample Provenance

Volcaniclastics can travel from tens to hundreds of kilometers away from their sources. Therefore, their provenance must be carefully examined to ensure that the tephras come from the Izu volcanic arc front. Because lava flows and pillow lavas cannot travel far from their source, provenance of bulk samples (e.g., mature arc magmas depicted as white circles with a red outline, and infant arc magmas depicted as yellow circles in Figures 2–9) is not examined further.

FIGURE 3

FIGURE 3. Fractionation trends. (A) CaO (wt%), and (B) Al₂O₃ (wt%) vs. MgO (wt%) diagrams. The kink in MgO ∼6–7 wt% in the basaltic lavas marks the onset of plagioclase (plag) and clinopyroxene (cpx) fractionation, implying that basalts with MgO ≥6–7 wt% are likely to have only crystallized olivine along their liquid line of descent, so they may have retained their primary composition. WR, whole rock

FIGURE 4

FIGURE 4. Volatile contents over time. (A) H₂O (wt%), (B) Cl (ppm), (C) F (ppm) contents of the Izu basaltic glass shards vs. time. Thick green lines from 0 to ∼5 Ma and from 15 to 29 Ma depict the opening of the back-arc rift and Shikoku Basin, respectively. A gap in is observed during opening of the Shikoku back-arc Basin, suggesting that the basaltic magmatic activity was interrupted during that interval of time. BAB: back-arc basin.

FIGURE 5

FIGURE 5. Chondrite-normalized rare Earth element patterns. (A) Izu basaltic glass shards (red compositional field); and (B) infant arc basalts (whole rock in yellow compositional field). Representative REE patterns for the Izu mature arc and for the Izu infant arc are also depicted as thick red lines (A) and a thick black line (B), respectively. Diagrams are normalized using the chondrite contents of Sun and McDonough (1989). The orange compositional field in panel A represents the mature arc magmas (bulk analyses) from the compiled dataset of DeBari et al. (2020). Detailed REE patterns can be found in the Supplementary Material.

FIGURE 6

FIGURE 6. Classification diagrams for sample provenance. (A) La/Yb and (B) La/Sm vs. time. The diagrams are used to examine the provenance of the volcaniclastics examined in this study. Some of the Izu volcaniclastics possess higher La/Sm and La/Yb ratios than most of the volcaniclastics from the volcanic arc front, as depicted by the pink compositional field. High La/Yb and La/Sm are characteristics of the rear-arc magmas, suggesting that the outliers may come from the rear-arc.

FIGURE 7

FIGURE 7. Temporal evolution of the degree of mantle melting and mantle depletion. (A) TiO₂ (wt%), (B) Nb/Yb, (C) TiO₂/Y, (D) Na₆ (wt%) diagrams used to examine the compositional evolution of the mantle source (Nb/Yb and TiO₂/Y) and extent of melting (TiO₂ and Na₆) over time. Some of the outliers may belong to the rear-arc, as suggested in Figure 6. The blue line represents an averaged composition of the proxies with 1σ error bar.

FIGURE 8

FIGURE 8. Temporal evolution of the slab fluids. The slab fluid compositions are inferred from markers of slab dehydration, Ba/Th (A) and Rb/Th (B), and sediment melts, Th/Nb (C), as in (Pearce et al., 2005). (D) Temporal variations in H₂O/K₂O is also used to track the compositional fluctuations of the water-rich slab fluids over time. The slab-fluid proxies display little variations over time. SI: subduction inception. The blue line represents an averaged composition with 1σ error bar.

FIGURE 9

FIGURE 9. Comparison between the markers of climate variations and slab dehydration for the past 45 Ma. (A) Markers of past climate variations δ¹⁸O and δ¹³C (Zachos et al., 2001). The general decrease in δ¹⁸O since the middle Eocene reveals a decrease in the Earth’s surface temperatures for the past 45 Ma (Zachos et al., 2001). (B) Cs/Ba and (C) Rb/Th ratios used to track the aqueous (volatile-rich) slab fluids released underneath the Izu arc for the past 45 Ma. The blue line represents an averaged composition of the markers of slab dehydration with 1σ error bar. There is a slight increase in the markers of slab dehydration at ∼ 40Ma (i.e., from the infant to the mature arc); while the long-term averages in the slab-fluid proxies have remained relatively constant in the mature Izu arc from 40 Ma.

The volcanic arc front, the rear arc, the back-arc rifts and back-arc knolls in Izu display distinct geochemical features, which can be used to distinguish the geodynamic settings of the volcaniclastics (Gill, 1981). For instance, Izu arc lavas are characterized by low K₂O content <1.5 wt%, La/Sm < 1.3 and La/Yb < 1.2, as compared to the back-arc and the rear arc magmas (Gill, 1981; Heywood et al., 2020). By contrast, rear-arc magmas possess La/Yb > 2, La/Sm > 1.5, along with higher K₂O content (Figure 2). As such, magma composition can be used to distinguish the provenance of tephras (Gill, 1981; Heywood et al., 2020). Because our goal is to examine the temporal variations of arc magma composition, we must ensure that our filtering will not reduce any compositional variations that could be associated to arc evolution. Therefore, our glass dataset is not filtered any further to minimize any bias that could be associated to filtering. The recent classification of Heywood et al. (2020) is only utilized to assess the provenance of the tephras, and to examine the validity of our approach. The volcaniclastics examined here are classified as volcanic arc, rear arc and back-arc solely based on their classification in the literature (Bryant et al., 2003; Straub, 2003; Straub and Layne, 2003; Straub et al., 2004; Barnes and Straub, 2010; Straub et al., 2010; Schindlbeck et al., 2018a; Kutterolf et al., 2018).

Most of the volcaniclastics plot within the compositional field of the Izu volcanic arc front. 97.4% (35 tephras have La/Yb > 1.2, as highlighted in blue in Supplementary Table S1) of the filtered volcaniclastics and mineral-hosted melt inclusions plot within the arc compositional fields of Heywood et al. (2020) (Figure 2), demonstrating that our selected volcaniclastics (red circles) mostly belongs to the Izu volcanic arc front. This approach is mostly valid for the mature volcanic arc front (red circles), as infant arc magmas (yellow circles) display distinct geochemical features that is further examined below. We also find that some of the screened volcaniclastics could belong to the rear arc based on their chemistry, as discussed below.

Some of the bulk volcaniclastics from Gill et al. (1994) and Hiscott and Gill (1992) (large white circles with a red outline) display a wide compositional range, along with higher La/Sm and La/Yb than observed for the Izu volcanic arc front (Figures 2, 3). This compositional variability could reflect the fact that the bulk analyses integrate a mixture of lithics and free crystals that could derive from several sources. Alteration could also play a role in the composition of some of the incompatible elements of the bulk volcaniclastics, including Na, K, Rb, Cs, La. Therefore, bulk volcaniclastics are examined with caution.

Results

Major Element Contents

In the K₂O-SiO₂ classification diagram (Peccerillo and Taylor, 1976), the samples are low-K basalts to basaltic andesites (K₂O < 1 wt%) that mostly plot within the arc compositional field (Figure 2). The infant arc magmas (yellow circles in Figure 2), that formed around 45–40 Ma (i.e., within ∼5–10 Ma of subduction inception), generally display higher K₂O content than the more mature arc magmas (red circles in Figure 2) that developed from 40 Ma. The infant and mature arc magmas possess MgO content ranging from 2 to 9 wt%, CaO content ranging from 7 to 14 wt% and Al₂O₃ content ranging from 10 to 21 wt% (Figure 3). The bulk rocks from the mature arc magmas (white circles with a red outline) display higher CaO and Al₂O₃ contents than the Izu arc glasses at the same MgO content, which likely reveals the effect of crystal fractionation (Figure 3). Indeed, in situ analyses of fresh glasses tend to minimize the effects of crystal fractionation, which are often revealed by lower contents in some of the major elements in the glasses.

The sharp decrease in CaO content with decreasing MgO content, that is associated with a change in Al₂O₃ content, reveals a kink in arc magma composition at MgO ∼6 – 7 wt% (as depicted by a thick orange line in Figure 3). This kink marks the onset of plagioclase and clinopyroxene crystallization in the arc magmas. Hence, arc magmas with MgO content ≥6 – 7 wt% mainly crystallized olivine on their liquid line of descent, so they may be considered in near equilibrium with their mantle source. The infant arc magmas and the more mature arc magmas (bulk samples) plot along similar liquid lines of descent (Figure 3).

Volatile Contents

The basaltic glass shards and the mineral-hosted melt inclusions display variable volatile content in water (0.5–5.4 wt%), Cl (50–2,850 ppm), F (72–260 ppm) (Figure 4). Their water content is consistent with the water content recorded in arc magmas (e.g., 0.19–6.14 wt% H₂O in the Marianas) (Ruscitto et al., 2012; Plank et al., 2013; Ribeiro et al., 2015). The fractionation trends in H₂O content plotted against indices of fractionation (e.g., SiO₂ and K₂O; Supplementary Figure S1) demonstrate that the basaltic glasses have preserved their original composition (see Supplementary Material). Volcanic degassing, alteration and diffusion between the crystal host and the melt inclusions may thus play a minor role in the glass composition. These fractionation trends further demonstrate that the glass shards and the mineral-hosted melt inclusions may have mostly preserved a reliable water content.

Trace Element Contents

Most of the basaltic glasses from the mature Izu arc display convex chondrite-normalized rare Earth element (REE) patterns with depletion in light REE (LREE) (Figure 5 and Supplementary Material for details). The basaltic glasses from the mature arc also possess flat heavy REE (HREE) patterns. Some of the basaltic glasses from the mature Izu arc are, instead, enriched in LREE as compared to the HREE, as reflected by their higher La/Yb and La/Sm ratios (>1 in Figure 5). They also display a negative Eu anomaly that is characteristics of plagioclase fractionation (Figure 5A). Their enrichment in LREE might reveal their rear-arc provenance, as suggested by Heywood et al. (2020) (Figure 2). The infant arc magmas display, instead, REE patterns that are both enriched and depleted in LREE as compared to the HREE (Figure 5B). They also show a negative Eu anomaly and flat HREE patterns.

Fresh basaltic glass shards and mineral-hosted melt inclusions from the Izu arc (both depicted as red circles in Figure 2) generally have La/Yb < 1.2 and La/Sm < 1.3. Only a few outliers possess La/Yb > 1.2 and La/Sm > 1.3 and plot within the compositional fields of the rear-arc and back-arc magmas (Heywood et al., 2020). Their higher ratios in La/Yb and La/Sm may reveal their rear-arc provenance (Figure 6). Infant arc magmas from the Bonin Islands display, instead, higher La/Sm and La/Yb ratios which overlap the compositional fields of the rear-arc, the back-arc and the arc magmas (Figure 2). Their enrichment in these ratios may reveal their formation during distinct petrogenetic processes (Ishizuka et al., 2006; Ribeiro et al., 2019; Ishizuka et al., 2020).

Discussion

Understanding the past variations in CO₂ fluxes released during arc volcanism (i.e., CO₂ outfluxes) is essential to comprehend the processes that modulate climate changes. The CO₂ outfluxes in volcanic arcs F_arc (g/yr/km of trench) are modulated by the arc magma addition rate M (km³/Ma/km of trench), the arc length L (km) and the pre-eruptive CO₂ content of the arc magma C_CO2 (ppm), such as:

$F_{arc}=\frac{{\text{M ρ C}}_{CO2}}{\text{L}}(1)$

ρ is the density of the crust (g/cm³). Arc magma addition rate M is defined as the volume of arc magmas that is added to the crust since arc formation, so M largely depends upon the variations in arc crustal thickness (km) over the lifetime of an arc. Arc magma addition rates are usually estimated from seismic crustal profiles (Holbrook et al., 1999; Dimalanta et al., 2002; Calvert et al., 2008), and their temporal variations remain poorly known. As such, most estimates of past CO₂ outfluxes in island arcs consider that the arc magma rate M has remained relatively homogeneous over the lifetime of an arc (Johnston et al., 2011; Wong et al., 2019). Yet, whether M remains constant over time has remained largely untested. Additionally, such a magma rate does not account for the volume of arc magmas that is removed by back-arc rifting, crustal erosion and crustal delamination, so M is largely underestimated (Jicha and Jagoutz, 2015). Additional uncertainties come from the CO₂ content of the magmas. Direct examinations of the temporal variations in the CO₂ content of arc magmas have proven challenging due to a lack of high-resolution temporal records in volcanic glasses (or mineral-hosted melt inclusions) that have preserved a reliable CO₂ content (Barnes and Straub, 2010; Straub and Layne, 2002, 2003). About 90% of the magmatic CO₂ may also degas upon magmatic ascent (Cartigny et al., 2008; Tucker et al., 2019), so that in situ analyses may not reliably track the pre-eruptive CO₂ content. As such, assessing the temporal variations in the volatile outfluxes (CO₂, S, H₂O) requires a better understanding of the magmatic history of island arcs.

To fill this scientific gap, here we examine the magmatic activity of the Izu arc shortly after its inception. Infiltration of slab fluids into the sub-arc mantle triggers mantle melting, which results in arc magmas (Grove et al., 2006). Therefore, temporal variations in the extent of mantle melting, length of the melting column, arc crustal thickness, mantle source composition, and slab-fluid composition play a first-order control on arc magma composition, arc magmatic activity and the extent of volatiles released by arc volcanism. Chemical proxies are powerful tools to track the compositional changes in mantle and subduction processes in arc basalts through time (Pearce et al., 2005). Therefore, here we use such chemical proxies i) to examine the magmatic history of the Izu arc over its lifetime; and ii) to explore the past evolution of slab-derived CO₂ outgassed during island arc volcanism. Finally, we discuss whether island arc volcanism has played an important role on long-term climate variations (≥10 Ma) for the past 45 Ma.

Variations in the Length of the Melting Column and in the Extent of Mantle Melting Through Time

The CO₂ outgassed by arc volcanism is modulated by the magma supply rate M Eq. 1, that is the volume of arc magmas added every million years to the arc crust. Therefore, M co-varies with the arc crustal thickness throughout the arc lifespan. Yet, assessing the temporal variations in arc crustal thickness from direct observations (e.g., geophysical survey, seismicity) remains challenging, so we must rely on chemical markers. Chemical elements, such as Na₆, La/Sm, La/Yb in arc basalts, are positively correlated with arc crustal thickness in worldwide arc volcanoes (Turner and Langmuir, 2015a, b). This coherent systematics implies that the length of the melting column plays a first-order control on arc magmatic activity. The thickness of the arc lithosphere controls, in return, the extent of mantle melting and the magma addition rate M. For instance, arc volcanoes with longer melting columns (i.e., thinner arc crust) produce magmas at higher degrees of mantle melting (Turner and Langmuir, 2015a; Turner et al., 2016). By contrast, arc volcanoes with a thicker crust will have a shorter melting column, and arc magmas are produced at lower extents of mantle melting (Turner and Langmuir, 2015b). Therefore, the temporal variations in the length of the melting column modulate the arc magmatic activity and the arc crustal thickness over the lifetime of an arc. Below, we further use the temporal variations in these chemical markers to place constraints onto the past variations in arc magma addition rates M in the Izu intra-oceanic arc.

TiO₂ is a compatible element that migrates with the melt during mantle melting, while it remains relatively immobile with the slab fluids. TiO₂ in fresh glasses is negatively correlated to the degree of mantle melting, so it can also be used to track the extent of mantle melting in arc magmas (Kelley et al., 2006). Na₆ is also utilized to track the extent of mantle melting in arc magmas (Klein and Langmuir, 1987; Kelley et al., 2006), as well as to examine the variations in the length of the melting column (Turner and Langmuir, 2015a, b). Na₆ content was calculated by bracketing the Na₂O content of arc basalts with MgO contents varying between 6 and 7 wt%, following the method of Turner and Langmuir (2015a, b). This method has the main advantage of using the measured values of Na₂O at MgO ∼6 – 7 wt%, as opposed to a value corrected from a linear regression (Klein and Langmuir, 1987; Kelley et al., 2006). La/Sm and La/Yb are used to track the length of the melting column, and infer temporal variations in arc crustal thickness (Turner and Langmuir, 2015a, b).

The increase in TiO₂ content from the infant to the mature arc suggests that the extent of mantle melting began to decrease as the arc became mature (within ∼5–10 Ma of arc inception). Alternatively, the increase in TiO₂ content can also be explained by the influx of a more fertile asthenospheric mantle during arc maturation, as supported by the Nb/Yb variations (Figure 7B). Once the arc has reached maturity (∼40 Ma ago), the chemical markers (TiO₂, Na₆) suggest that the extent of melting has remained relatively homogeneous (Figures 7A,D) for millions of years. A gap in the volcanic record from 25–15 Ma (Figure 7) suggests that arc magmatism was interrupted or reduced for ∼10 Ma in Izu. This short period of magmatic quiescence (23–20 Ma) coincides with the opening of the Shikoku back-arc Basin (Taylor, 1992) that initiated ∼29–26 Ma ago (Okino et al., 1994; Ishizuka et al., 2011b), as depicted by the thick green line in Figure 7.

La/Sm, La/Yb and Na₆ from the mature Izu arc basalts (>40 Ma) plot within a homogeneous compositional field (pink field in Figures 6, 7D), implying a relatively steady arc crustal thickness over the lifetime of the mature Izu arc. Such observations imply that crustal thickening is rapidly achieved during arc infancy (from ∼10 to ∼20 km thick within ∼5–10 Ma of subduction inception) in Izu (Kodaira et al., 2010; Ishizuka et al., 2011a). The chemical proxies used to track the length of the melting column (Na₆, La/Sm, La/Yb) remain relatively constant in average in the mature arc, suggesting that once the arc has reached maturity, it has likely preserved its crustal thickness (∼20 km thick) (Kodaira et al., 2010) for millions of years (Figure 7D). Similar crustal thicknesses have been observed in the modern Mariana arc using seismicity (Takahashi et al., 2007).

Despite short-term cyclicities (Gill et al., 1994), the relatively homogeneous long-term averages in the markers of mantle melting and length of the melting column demonstrate that the magmatic activity and the crustal thickness of the Izu arc have remained nearly homogeneous over its lifetime. Such results further suggest that arc magma addition rate M in the Izu arc may have remained relatively steady for the past 40 Ma. Such a long-term steadiness implies that any new supply of arc magmas added by mantle melting to the arc crust is rapidly removed by crustal erosion (von Huene and Scholl, 1991) and back-arc stretching (Jicha and Jagoutz, 2015).

Temporal Evolution of the Mantle Source

The asthenospheric mantle plays a central role in fingerprinting the composition of arc magmas. Because the asthenospheric mantle also contains some CO₂ (Cartigny et al., 2008; Dasgupta and Hirschmann, 2010), variations in the mantle composition may result in variations in the CO₂ content of arc magmas. Hence, examining temporal variations in mantle source composition is essential to examine how CO₂ outgassed by island arcs may have varied over the arc lifetime.

Nb and Yb are incompatible elements that both remain relatively immobile with the slab fluids, but they are easily mobilized during mantle melting. Nb and Yb have similar partition coefficients during crystal fractionation, but Nb migrates slightly faster than Yb with the mantle melts. Hence, the Nb/Yb ratio has the potential to track mantle depletion and mantle enrichment, as well as the extent of mantle melting (Pearce et al., 2005). Similarly, TiO₂/Y ratio can also be used to track mantle enrichment and depletion (Kelley et al., 2006). However, TiO₂ is less mobile than Nb during mantle melting; therefore, it is a slightly less sensitive marker to the variations in mantle source composition than Nb. TiO₂/Y and Nb/Yb ratios can thus be used to track compositional variations in the mantle source provided that garnet is not a residual phase, as garnet strongly partitions the HREE. The flat HREE patterns of the infant and mature arc magmas (Figure 5 and Supplementary Material for details) demonstrate that garnet is not a residual phase in the Izu arc basalts. Variations in Na₆ and TiO₂ contents of the Izu arc basalts suggest that the extent of mantle melting has remained relatively homogenous for the past 40 Ma (Figures 7A,D), so TiO₂/Y and Nb/Yb proxies can be used to reliably track the temporal variations in mantle depletion-enrichment.

The high Nb/Yb ratios (∼1) of the infant arc magmas (Figure 7B) suggest the influx of relatively fresh and undepleted asthenospheric mantle during arc infancy around 45 Ma (i.e., ∼5 Ma of subduction inception). The decrease in Nb/Yb from the infant to the mature arc magmas (from ∼1 to less than 1) implies that the sub-arc mantle is progressively depleted due to continuous melt extraction (Figures 2D, 7B) during arc maturation. As the arc reached maturity around 40 Ma, the Nb/Yb ratios (0.1–0.3) remained approximately constant throughout the lifespan of the Izu arc, with the exception of a few basaltic glasses with ages <3 Ma (Nb/Yb ∼ 1) (Figure 7B). A small decrease in the Nb/Yb ratios of the basaltic glasses (from ∼0.4 to 0.2) might also exist around 25 Ma. This decrease in Nb/Yb ratios could reveal a mantle depletion that might be associated to opening of the Shikoku Basin between 29 and 26 Ma (Gill et al., 1994; Bryant et al., 2003) (Figure 7). The TiO₂/Y ratio (∼100–600) seems to have remained relatively homogenous throughout the lifespan of the Izu arc, with the exception of a few recent basaltic glasses (age <3 Ma) that show higher TiO₂/Y (∼1,400). The increase in Nb/Yb (∼1) and in TiO₂/Y (∼1,400) in the mature arc magmas for the past 3 Ma could reveal the recent inflow of asthenospheric mantle underneath the Izu arc (Figures 7B,C). Alternatively, those basaltic volcaniclastics could come from the rear-arc, whose magmas are characterized by a depletion in the HREE as compared to the arc magmas (Heywood et al., 2020).

Once the Izu arc has become mature (i.e., from ∼40 Ma), the relatively homogeneous Nb/Yb (0.01–0.03) and TiO₂/Y (∼100–600) ratios suggest that the sub-arc asthenospheric mantle is continuously replenished by fresh and relatively fertile inflow of asthenospheric mantle over time (Hochstaedter et al., 2000). Continuous extraction of arc magmas from the sub-arc mantle would thus be rapidly balanced by mantle convection that would bring continuously fresh inflows of asthenospheric mantle underneath the mature arc (Magni, 2019). Mantle convection thus enables the sub-arc mantle to remain relatively fresh and undepleted over time, so it may continue melting without suffering of extensive mantle depletion (Hochstaedter et al., 2000; Straub et al., 2010; Magni, 2019). However, shorter-term variations in mantle flows and mantle source composition may still exist in the mature arc. For instance, opening of the Shikoku back-arc Basin likely depleted the sub-arc asthenospheric mantle, as suggested by a small decrease in the Nb/Yb at ∼ 25 Ma (Bryant et al., 2003) (Figure 7B). The mantle flowing underneath the arc would thus be progressively depleted, due to prior melt extraction underneath the back-arc basin. Once the back-arc basin stops spreading, slab-driven mantle flow is restored, bringing a new and fresh inflow of asthenospheric mantle underneath the Izu arc (Hochstaedter et al., 2000; Magni, 2019). The relative constancy in the long-term averages in markers of mantle source composition further demonstrates that these short-term variations in mantle flows and mantle composition are rapidly counterbalanced (i.e., within 1–5 Ma). Hence, the mantle flowing underneath the mature Izu arc may maintain a relative homogeneous composition over long periods of time (Hochstaedter et al., 2000; Nikolaeva et al., 2008; Straub et al., 2010; Straub et al., 2015).

Temporal Evolution of the Slab Fluids

Slab fluids are major carriers of volatiles (H₂O, CO₂, S, Cl) at subduction zones. As the slab fluids infiltrate the sub-arc asthenospheric mantle during dehydration and melting of the subducted plate, they trigger mantle melting which results in arc magmas (Grove et al., 2006). Arc magmas thus capture the slab-derived volatiles released upon mineral breakdown (Peacock, 1990; Schmidt and Poli, 1998; Hilton et al., 2002). Mantle melting and melt extraction beneath the arc occur as long as the slab fluids are being released into the sub-arc asthenosphere (Kelley et al., 2010), so arc magmatic activity and arc crustal growth are associated with slab dehydration and slab melting.

Dehydration and melting of the subducted plate can be tracked using chemical markers. For instance, elemental ratios of incompatible elements that are easily mobilized with the water-rich slab fluids (Cs, Ba, Rb) and with the slab melts (Th) over elements that remain rather immobile with the slab fluids (Nb, Ta, Yb) have the potential to track the slab fluids that infiltrated the sub-arc mantle (Elliott, 2003; Pearce et al., 2005). Hence, Ba/Nb, Rb/Nb and Ba/Yb ratios are commonly used to track the total contribution in slab fluids (both aqueous slab fluids and sediment slab melts); while Th/Nb ratios solely track the slab melt contribution (Kogiso et al., 1997; Johnson and Plank, 1999; Pearce et al., 2005). Using incompatible element ratios that have similar partition coefficients during mantle melting and crystal fractionation has the advantage of minimizing these processes, which can obscure the subduction signal in the magma composition. Slab dehydration is tracked by using ratios of incompatible elements that are mobilized with the water-rich slab fluids (Cs, Ba, Rb) over Th, as Th is mainly mobilized with the slab melt (Pearce et al., 2005). Therefore, the Ba/Th, Rb/Th, Cs/Th ratios minimize the contribution from the sediment slab melts, so they mainly track the water-rich slab fluids. Finally, because Cs is more easily mobilized with the aqueous slab fluids released during mantle deserpentinization, as compared to Ba, Cs/Ba ratio can be used to track the water-rich fluids released from the subducted, serpentinized mantle.

Using these systematics, we find that the infant arc magmas display slightly lower Ba/Th, Rb/Th, Cs/Th and Th/Nb than the mature Izu arc glasses (Figures 2D, 8). The increase in the slab-fluid markers from the infant to the mature arc reveals an increased contribution in the water-rich slab fluids and sediment slab melts during arc maturation (i.e., from 45 to 40 Ma). There is also a sharp increase in Ba/Th between 5 and 15 Ma (Figure 8C) that is not observed in the other markers of water-rich slab fluids (Rb/Th, Ba/Nb and Cs/Ba), suggesting that these high Ba/Th ratios might reveal other processes (e.g., alteration). Rb/Th, Ba/Nb, Cs/Ba and Th/Nb (except for two samples with high Th/Nb) plot, instead, within a homogeneous compositional field for the past 40 Ma (pink compositional field in Figures 8, 9). The relatively homogeneous composition of the slab-fluid markers over long time period suggests rapid feedbacks to these short-term variations.

To summarize, we have examined the composition of the Izu arc basaltic glasses to track its long-term magmatic history using chemical markers. We have shown that:

The temporal variations in the chemical proxies in the length of the melting column (Na₆, La/Sm, La/Yb), and hence, in the arc crustal thickness, in the extent of mantle melting (Na₆, TiO₂), in the mantle composition (Nb/Yb, TiO₂/Y) and in the slab-fluid composition (Ba/Th, Rb/Th, Ba/Nb, Cs/Ba and Th/Nb) have varied within restricted ranges over long periods of time (>5–10 Ma).

The long-term averages in these chemical makers have relatively little varied in the Izu arc for the past 40 Ma, implying that shorter-term variations (<5 Ma) in mantle and subduction processes are rapidly adjusted, so the mature arc maintain a balance (i.e., steady-state magmatic activity) over long timescales (>5–10 Ma).

Such a long-term steadiness in averaged arc magma composition is consistent with the fact that, despite shorter-term cyclicities, the mature Izu arc has maintained a long-term steady-state magmatic activity for ∼40 Ma (Ishizuka et al., 2006; Straub et al., 2010; Straub et al., 2015). This long-term steady state in arc magmatic activity does not mean that the mantle and the subduction processes have remained constant over the lifetime of the mature Izu arc. Instead, it means that the mantle and the subduction processes have varied within a restricted range over long time periods; and any short-term perturbations are rapidly counterbalanced (within 1–5 Ma). Hence, such a long-term steady state has enabled the mature Izu arc to stabilize and to consolidate in its current location, so continuous arc magma supply contributes to thickening and differentiation of the arc crust (Ribeiro et al., 2019).

Is the Izu Arc Representative of Mature Island Arcs?

The Izu-Bonin-Mariana (IBM) convergent margin is an example of a self-sustained subduction zone, where the volcanic arc front has reached maturity within 10 Ma of subduction inception (Ishizuka et al., 2006; Ishizuka et al., 2011b). The mature IBM arc has maintained its current location at ∼ 150–200 km from the trench for the past 40 Ma (Stern et al., 2003). The fact that the mature Izu arc has preserved its location and a crustal thickness of ∼20 km (Figure 7) for tens of millions of years implies that, despite back-arc opening and short-term variations in arc magmatic activity, the Izu arc has maintained a steady-state magmatic activity over long periods of time. Mature arc volcanoes from worldwide subduction zones have also preserved their location at a slab depth of roughly 112 ± 19 km (Tatsumi, 1986) or 124 ± 38 km (Gill, 1981) for millions of years. Such observations concur with the notion that long-lived intra-oceanic subduction zones with a mature arc may also maintain a long-term steady-state magmatic activity over long period of times. Hence, short-term variations in mantle flows, slab fluids, extent of mantle melting, length of melting column and arc crustal thickness are rapidly adjusted, so mature island arcs may preserve a relatively steady location over long periods of time to stabilize, consolidate and develop. However, some subduction zones do not become self–sustained, and they do not reach a steady state in arc magmatic activity (Gerya et al., 2008; Lallemand and Arcay, 2021). Instead, they abort shortly after their inception, such as the Troodos supra-subduction zone ophiolite in Cyprus (Pearce and Robinson, 2010). A recent compilation showed that about 24 modern intra-oceanic subduction zones became self-sustained within ∼10 Ma of their inception (Lallemand and Arcay, 2021), implying that their associated arcs rapidly reached maturity and stabilized in their current location to consolidate. Such evolution is consistent with the evolution of the IBM arc (Ishizuka et al., 2006; Ribeiro et al., 2019; Ishizuka et al., 2020), implying that the Izu arc may be representative of mature island arcs. Because arc stabilization is essential to achieve crustal thickening and arc maturation (Ribeiro et al., 2019), most worldwide mature island arcs from long-lived subduction zones may also have developed a long-term steady state in arc magmatic activity to maintain a balance in the mantle and subduction processes over long time periods. A long-term steady-state in arc magmatic activity could thus be essential in the development and maturation of infant arcs, so they could preserve a relatively steady location over long periods of time.

Mature island arcs may maintain a long-term steady-state magmatic activity unless the subduction zone is affected by i) plate tectonic reorganization; ii) back-arc basin opening; iii) collision or seamount/ridge subduction (Wu and Wu, 2019) and iv) slab rollback. However, back-arc basin opening and ridge subduction will interrupt the magmatic activity for only a short period of time (≤10 Ma) (Figure 4) (Taylor, 1992; Wu and Wu, 2019). Once mantle convection is restored, arc magmatic activity will initiate again, producing arc magmas with a similar composition to those that developed before the onset of back-arc spreading. So over long-time periods, averaged arc magma composition has only little varied. Such a scenario has been observed in the Izu arc (Figure 6). A change in the slab composition and mantle inflow will also lead to a change in the composition of the arc magmas. But arc magma composition rapidly adjusts to these new conditions (within 1–5 Ma) until a new balance is reached. For instance, the collision-subduction of seamount chains at the Mariana Trench ∼10 Ma ago resulted in an enrichment in Pb isotopic ratios and K₂O content in the Mariana arc magmas (Straub et al., 2015). This enrichment has been preserved as long as the seamount chains have been subducting at the Mariana Trench. Hence, the long-term composition of the Mariana arc magmas has remained relatively homogeneous for the past 10 Ma, supporting the notion of a long-term steady-state magmatic activity in mature island arcs. Unless the subduction zone aborts or collides onto a continent or with another arc, arc magmatic activity may persist over long periods of time.

Tracking the Temporal Variations in the Outgassed CO₂ by Island Arc Volcanism

Correlations between the CO₂/S_T ratios of volcanic gas from worldwide island arcs with markers of slab fluids (e.g., Ba/La, U/Th, Sr/Nd; Figure 10) (Aiuppa et al., 2017; Aiuppa et al., 2019) demonstrate that i) slab dehydration and slab melting play first-order controls on the CO₂ outgassed by island arc volcanism (Kerrick and Connolly, 2001; Ague and Nicolescu, 2014; Skora et al., 2015; Vitale Brovarone et al., 2018), where crustal contamination is minimal (Lee et al., 2013; Aiuppa et al., 2017; Mason et al., 2017); and ii) outgassed CO₂ in island arcs may mainly come from the slab fluids released from dehydrating and melting the subducted sediments and the altered oceanic crust (Sano and Marty, 1995; Aiuppa et al., 2017). Hence, slab dehydration and slab melting drive decarbonation and carbonate dissolution of the subducted slab (Ague and Nicolescu, 2014; Skora et al., 2015; Vitale Brovarone et al., 2018), and some of the subducted carbon is released back to the surface via island arc magmatism (Kelemen and Manning, 2015; Aiuppa et al., 2019). The relationship inferred between the markers of the slab fluids and the CO₂ outgassed by island arc volcanism (Sano and Marty, 1995; Aiuppa et al., 2014; Aiuppa et al., 2017; Aiuppa et al., 2019) suggests that the markers of slab dehydration and slab melting (Figure 10) may be used to track the long-term temporal variations in slab-derived CO₂ released by island arc volcanism, where crustal assimilation is minimal.

FIGURE 10

FIGURE 10. Relationship between the CO₂/S_T outgassed in worldwide arc volcanoes and the slab-fluid markers Ba/La of Aiuppa et al. (2017). Arc volcanoes were grouped according to their CO₂/S_T ratios, so that arc volcanoes outgassing large fluxes of CO₂ have the highest CO₂/S_T (Aiuppa et al., 2017). Such arc volcanoes are mostly continental arcs and they plot within the crustal fluid domain (light red compositional field), implying that the largest CO₂ fluxes outgassed by volcanic arcs mostly come from crustal contamination, as emphasized by Lee et al. (2013). By contrast, island arc volcanoes that have experienced little crustal contamination, such as the Mariana arc, possess lower CO₂/S_T ratios that plot within the slab fluid domain (light blue field). The positive correlation between the CO₂/S_T ratios outgassed in these island arcs (depicted as green circles and yellow triangles) and the slab-fluid markers (Ba/La) demonstrates that the CO₂ released in volcanic arcs mainly derive from the subducted slab.

The long-term steadiness in arc magmatic activity in Izu, as suggested by chemical markers (Na₆, La/Sm, Nb/Yb, …), supports the notion that the variations in the outgassed CO₂ (and hence, CO₂/S_T) are mainly modulated by the variations in the slab fluid composition over long timescales. The homogenous long-term markers in water-rich slab fluids (Ba/Th, Rb/Th, Cs/Ba) and sediment slab melts (Th/Nb) further imply that the slab-derived CO₂ outgassed by the Izu mature arc may have remained relatively homogeneous over long time periods. Such results suggest that the composition of the subducted Pacific slab in Izu might have remained relatively homogeneous for the past 40 Ma, as any variations in the slab composition would be captured by the arc magmas. Continuous eruptions of arc magmas in Izu thus provide a continuous supply of fresh, weatherable rocks on the surface over time, which draws down CO₂ within ∼300 kyr after the onset of volcanism (Pogge von Strandmann et al., 2013). Hence, degassing of volcanic CO₂ is rapidly balanced by silicate weathering (within ∼200–300 kyr), precipitation of marine carbonates, and burial of organic carbon (Berner and Caldeira, 1997; Allègre et al., 2010). Tectonic erosion of the arc and fore-arc crust may also contribute to rapidly draw down CO₂ (Gaillardet et al., 1999; Pogge von Strandmann et al., 2010) via carbon burial, providing an additional return pathway for carbon into the mantle (Straub et al., 2020; von Huene and Scholl, 1991).

Implications for the Long-Term Climate Variations

Although we have only focused on the Izu arc, this arc belongs to the northern part of the larger Izu-Bonin-Mariana system. In the Eocene, the IBM intra-oceanic arc further extended to the south and it was likely associated to the Tonga-Fiji-Kermadec intra-oceanic arc, representing more than 4,000 km of arc length ∼45 Ma ago (Gill, 1987; Todd et al., 2012; Wu et al., 2016). Since the Cenozoic, 24 intra-oceanic subduction zones have reached maturity and became self-sustained, covering ∼39,360 km trench length total (Figure 11) (Lallemand and Arcay, 2021). Therefore, more than half of the modern intra-oceanic subduction zones have developed a mature arc during the Cenozoic. Although a high-resolution record of the magmatic sequences does not yet exist for most active island arcs, the simple fact that these mature island arcs have maintained their current location for tens of millions of years (Gill, 1981; Tatsumi, 1986) implies that, far from collision zones or ridge/seamount subduction, the arc magmatic activity may have reached a steady state over long timescales. This long-term steady state implies that the sub-arc mantle has been continuously replenished by the inflow of fertile asthenospheric mantle (Magni, 2019); and the arc magmas have captured the slab fluids (and slab-derived volatiles) released from the same portion of the slab (Straub et al., 2010; Straub et al., 2015).

FIGURE 11

FIGURE 11. Global map showing the self-sustained intra-oceanic subduction zones during the Cenozoic epoch. 24 oceanic subduction zones (in red) have been proposed to have reached the self-sustained state since the Cenozoic, which corresponds to ∼39,360 km cumulative trench length (Lallemand and Arcay, 2021). The world map was made with GeoMapApp (http://www.geomapapp.org).

If worldwide mature island arcs also maintain a long-term steady-state magmatic activity (i.e., constant M in Eq. 1) like in Izu, their long-term CO₂ outfluxes may be mainly modulated by the island arc length L in Eq. 1 and the flux of CO₂ entering the trenches F_in (g/yr/km of trench), that is defined such as:

$F_{in}=F_{arc}\mathrm{+}{F}_{ba}\mathrm{+}{F}_x(2)$

$F_{in}=u_o\left({\displaystyle {\sum }_i{H}^i{C}_{{\mathrm{co}}_2}^i{\rho }^i}\right)(3)$

Assuming a steady state in the global C cycle over long timescales (Kelemen and Manning, 2015), F_in is balanced by the fluxes of CO₂ emitted at the arc F_arc and at the back-arc F_ba in Eq. 2. F_x is the flux of remaining CO₂ in the residual slab that bypasses the generation depth of subduction zone magmas and is recycled into the lower mantle. F_in includes the carbonates in the subducted sediments, altered oceanic crust and lithospheric mantle Eq. 3. H is the thickness of the lithosphere (km), C_CO2 is the concentration of CO₂ (ppm), ρ is density (g/cm³) and u_o is the convergence rate (mm/yr). The length of worldwide oceanic subduction zones L has been proposed to have increased for the past 60 Ma, as several subduction zones initiated in the Western Pacific during the early Cenozoic (Matthews et al., 2016; Müller et al., 2016). Additionally, sedimentary carbonate entering the trenches may have also increased since the Late Cretaceous, resulting in an increase in the CO₂ influxes F_in for the past 100 Ma (Dutkiewicz et al., 2018; Wong et al., 2019). Such an increase in the subducted CO₂ F_in and in the worldwide arc length L suggests that the flux of CO₂ outgassed by worldwide island arc volcanoes F_arc could have increased for the past 45 Ma. Alternatively, an increase in the subducted carbonate flux F_in could also imply that the remaining subducted CO₂ flux that is returned to the lower mantle F_x might have increased during the Cenozoic Eq. 2. Both scenarios are not mutually exclusive and require further investigations.

A long-term steadiness or a long-term increase in the CO₂ fluxes emitted by worldwide island arc volcanoes F_arc cannot be easily reconciled with the long-term cooling temperatures and the onset of high latitude glaciation (icehouse climate) that prevail during the Cenozoic (Berner, 1989; Gaillardet et al., 1999; Pogge von Strandmann et al., 2010; Lee et al., 2016). Additionally, the lack of co-variations between the markers of past climate changes (δ¹⁸O, δ¹³C) (Zachos et al., 2001) and the markers of slab dehydration and slab melting (Ba/Th, Rb/Th, Cs/Ba, Th/Nb), that are believed to track the CO₂ outfluxes emitted by island arcs (Aiuppa et al., 2017; Aiuppa et al., 2019), implies that the long-term release of slab-derived CO₂ by mature island arcs may not be responsible for the long-term climate fluctuations during the Cenozoic (Figures 7–9). Our observations are at odds with evidences of declining atmospheric pCO₂ and increasing silicate weathering for at least the past 40 Ma (Raymo and Ruddiman, 1992; Caves Rugenstein et al., 2019). Furthermore, most island arcs are not intersecting carbonate platforms, so they mostly outgas relatively low to moderate CO₂ flux (CO₂/S_T ≤ 4) in the atmosphere (Lee et al., 2013; Aiuppa et al., 2017; Mason et al., 2017; Aiuppa et al., 2019). Such low to moderate CO₂ outfluxes suggest that island arc volcanoes may not be the main contributors to the volcanic CO₂ outgassed in the atmosphere. Alternatively, eruption of volcaniclastics during explosive volcanism has been proposed to result in a negative climate feedback, which would enhance climate cooling (Soreghan et al., 2019). However, eruption of volcanic aerosols seems to be too short lived (<5 Ma) to cause long-term climate variations (Black et al., 2015; Soreghan et al., 2019). Finally, an increase in the residual subducted CO₂ flux F_x that is recycled into the lower mantle could also draw down the atmospheric pCO₂ during the Cenozoic, but this possibility has to be further explored.

Although the origin of the Cenozoic global cooling remains widely debated (Raymo and Ruddiman, 1992; Berner, 1994; Müller et al., 2008; Li and Elderfield, 2013; Lee et al., 2015; Cao et al., 2017), our study suggests that, once island arcs have reached maturity, arc volcanic degassing is likely to be rapidly balanced by tectonic erosion and silicate weathering, which may draw down the outgassed volcanic CO₂ within less than 1 Ma (Figure 12B). Therefore, mature island arcs might play a minor role in long-term climate changes; and they may instead contribute to maintain background stability. However, additional studies are required to test the assumption that worldwide island arcs from self-sustained oceanic subduction zones have maintained a steady-state magmatic activity over long timescales. Additionally, we cannot exclude the possibility that island arc degassing may have contributed to shorter-term climate variations (<5–10 Ma), as our study only allows us to examine the long-term variations in arc magmatic activity. Finally, our study highlights the importance of examining the arc magmatic history prior assessing volatile outfluxes, as island arc magmatic activity may not have always been at a steady state (Ishizuka et al., 2011b; Ribeiro et al., 2019; Ishizuka et al., 2020). As such, modern magma rates may not be suitable to infer CO₂ outfluxes released during subduction infancy. Island arc infancy is indeed a transient stage that is rapidly evolving (Figure 12A). During that stage, the infant arc does not maintain its location, as it is rapidly displaced away from the trench (Ishizuka et al., 2006; Ishizuka et al., 2011a; Ribeiro et al., 2019). The subducted slab is progressively cooling, while the serpentinized fore-arc mantle is developing (Agard et al., 2016; Ribeiro et al., 2019). Such rapid changes are likely to influence the release of slab-derived volatiles into the sub-arc asthenospheric mantle over time.

FIGURE 12

FIGURE 12. Sketch of carbon cycle over the lifetime of the Izu intra-oceanic arc. (A) From ∼45–40 Ma, the infant Izu arc rapidly developed. The volcanic arc front is progressively displaced away from the trench until reaching its current location. During that transient stage, the steady state is not maintained. (B) The Izu arc has reached maturity ∼40 Ma ago and maintains its current location at ∼ 150 km from the Izu Trench. The serpentinized fore-arc mantle developed and cools the shallow part of the slab top. The subduction zone is in a quasi steady state and maintains self-sustained conditions over long time periods. During that stage, volcanic degassing of CO₂ is readily balanced by silicate weathering and tectonic erosion within 100–300 kyr.

Conclusion

The Izu intra-oceanic arc has rapidly reached maturity and has developed a long-term steady-state magmatic activity within 10 Ma of subduction initiation. Despite short-term cyclicities, the long-term averages in the markers of the mantle source composition (Nb/Yb, TiO₂/Y), slab fluids (Ba/Th, Rb/Th, Th/Nb, Cs/Ba), arc crustal thickness (La/Sm, La/Yb) and extent of mantle melting (Na₆, TiO₂) have remained relatively homogeneous for the past 40 Ma in Izu. Such a long-term steadiness in arc magmatic activity implies that the composition of mantle source and slab fluids released at sub-arc depth have varied within restricted ranges over long timescales in the mature Izu arc. Mature island arcs may be so tuned, so any shorter-term variations in mantle and subduction processes would be rapidly balanced (within ∼1–5 Ma) to maintain a steady-state magmatic activity over long-time periods. This long-term steady state could be essential to arc stabilization, crustal thickening and subsequent arc maturation. The continuous supply of arc magmas into the arc crust, and the subsequent arc crustal growth, might thus be rapidly balanced by tectonic erosion and silicate weathering, so the mature Izu arc maintains a relatively steady arc crustal thickness (∼20 km thick) over long time periods.

The fact that worldwide island arcs from self-sustained subduction zones have maintained their current location for millions of years suggests that they may also have developed a long-term steady state magmatic activity. Such a steadiness in the long-term magmatic history of mature island arcs is at odds with the declining atmospheric CO₂ since the early Cenozoic, suggesting that long-term degassing by mature island arcs may have played a minor role into long-term climate variations. The long-term volcanic CO₂ outgassed by mature island arcs may be instead rapidly balanced by silicate weathering of freshly erupted magmas and tectonic erosion, which draw down the atmospheric CO₂ within a few hundreds of thousand years. Volcanic degassing of CO₂ by long-lived island arcs would thus contribute to background atmospheric CO₂ over long timescales. This subduction-degassing-weathering cycle may have regulated the exchanges in CO₂ between the Earth’s surface and its deeper interior to sustain life and planet habitability over geological times.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author Contributions

JR designed the study, compiled the database, and wrote the manuscript. PP and JR discussed implications on climate changes and weathering. All authors contributed to the manuscript, read, and approved the submitted version.

Funding

JR acknowledges a PIFI fellowship from the CAS n^o 2020VCB000. PP is supported by ERC grant 682760 CONTROLPASTCO2.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Acknowledgments

JR is grateful to J. Gill (USCS), C.T. Lee (Rice University), J. Ryan (South Florida University), and J. Pearce (Cardiff University) for the thoughtful discussions over the past few years that have inspired this manuscript. J. Wu (Houston University) is also thanked for the discussions on IBM past tectonic evolution. W. Leeman (Rice University) is thanked for inviting us to this special session in Frontiers in Earth Sciences. Jaime Barnes, the editor, and the reviewers are thanked for their insightful comments that have greatly improved this manuscript.

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2022.810597/full#supplementary-material

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