The Chilling Effect Online: Political Orientation, Content Sensitivity, and Willingness to Speak Out on Social Media in the U.K

Neil Daruwala ^*

• University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom

The implementation of regulations such as the Online Safety Act by the United Kingdom government to combat hate speech and misinformation raises critical concerns regarding their psychological and behavioural effects on online discourse. This study explores how political orientation, perceptions of risk, and the ambiguity of regulatory frameworks influence the phenomenon of online self-censorship.A survey of 548 UK residents (aged 18 to 65+, mean age = 35.3 years) gathered data on age, sex, and political orientation, offering a snapshot of the demographic and ideological diversity pertinent to the study's focus. Participants completed the Chilling Effect Scale (Cronbach's α ≥ 0.82) to evaluate their willingness to speak out, tendencies toward selfcensorship, and perceived fears of governmental punitive actions. Two anonymised social media posts, one supporting a terrorist organisation and the other advocating for the expulsion of immigrants, were assessed using the Brandenburg Test framework to analyse intent, harm, and incitement. Participants displayed heightened self-censorship when evaluating posts perceived as inciting harm.Findings revealed that political orientation influenced self-expression: "Very Liberal" participants were the most willing to speak out, while Non-Political participants demonstrated the highest level of self-censorship F(5, 542) = 9.16, p < .001, η² = 0.08). Liberals exhibited greater sensitivity to harmful content than conservatives or non-political individuals. Regulatory ambiguity increased self-censorship by 23%, particularly among Conservatives and Non-Political participants, owing to fears of punitive actions.Recommendations include clarifying ambiguous terms like "legal but harmful," enhancing transparency in moderation, and encouraging cross-ideological dialogue. These findings provide crucial insights for balancing public safety with free expression, especially in polarised digital environments.