Skip to main content

REVIEW article

Front. Behav. Neurosci., 23 March 2022
Sec. Motivation and Reward
This article is part of the Research Topic Neurobehavioural Mechanisms of Reward: Theoretical and Technical Perspectives and Their Implications for Psychopathology View all 5 articles

Psychological Dimensions Relevant to Motivation and Pleasure in Schizophrenia

  • 1Mental Health Service, Veterans Affairs San Francisco Healthcare System, San Francisco, CA, United States
  • 2Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
  • 3Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States

Motivation and pleasure deficits are common in schizophrenia, strongly linked with poorer functioning, and may reflect underlying alterations in brain functions governing reward processing and goal pursuit. While there is extensive research examining cognitive and reward mechanisms related to these deficits in schizophrenia, less attention has been paid to psychological characteristics that contribute to resilience against, or risk for, motivation and pleasure impairment. For example, psychological tendencies involving positive future expectancies (e.g., optimism) and effective affect management (e.g., reappraisal, mindfulness) are associated with aspects of reward anticipation and evaluation that optimally guide goal-directed behavior. Conversely, maladaptive thinking patterns (e.g., defeatist performance beliefs, asocial beliefs) and tendencies that amplify negative cognitions (e.g., rumination), may divert cognitive resources away from goal pursuit or reduce willingness to exert effort. Additionally, aspects of sociality, including the propensity to experience social connection as positive reinforcement may be particularly relevant for pursuing social goals. In the current review, we discuss the roles of several psychological characteristics with respect to motivation and pleasure in schizophrenia. We argue that individual variation in these psychological dimensions is relevant to the study of motivation and reward processing in schizophrenia, including interactions between these psychological dimensions and more well-characterized cognitive and reward processing contributors to motivation. We close by emphasizing the value of considering a broad set of modulating factors when studying motivation and pleasure functions in schizophrenia.

Introduction

Motivation and pleasure deficits are core negative symptoms of schizophrenia and are strongly linked to poor functional outcomes (Fervaha et al., 2014). While considerable research efforts have studied the cognitive and reward processing mechanisms that underlie motivation and pleasure deficits in schizophrenia (Strauss and Gold, 2012; Kring and Barch, 2014; Gold et al., 2015; Najas-Garcia et al., 2018), far less attention has been paid to the role of individual psychological characteristics that contribute to resilience against, or risk for, these impairments. And yet, it is the complex intersection of environmental, psychological, cognitive, and reward processes that both cause and maintain reduced motivation and pleasure in schizophrenia (Strauss et al., 2016). The current review highlights several psychological characteristics that relate to motivation and pleasure dysfunction in schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders, with the goal of broadening the study of amotivation, as a complement to ongoing progress discerning cognitive and reward processing contributions.

Negative symptoms are a cluster of deficits reflecting a loss of typical functioning. These symptoms can be parsimoniously described by two subdomains, one capturing diminished motivation and pleasure (avolition, anhedonia, asociality), and the other capturing diminished expression or communication (blunted affect, alogia) (Blanchard and Cohen, 2006; Blanchard et al., 2011). Relative to expressive deficits, motivation and pleasure deficits are linked to worse outcomes in schizophrenia, including poorer occupational attainment (Llerena et al., 2018) and quality of life (Savill et al., 2016). Motivation and pleasure deficits also better predict real-life functioning and quality of life among individuals at clinical high-risk for psychosis (CHR) (Glenthøj et al., 2020; Üçok et al., 2021). Despite their profound functional impact, there are no established treatments for motivation and pleasure deficits in schizophrenia (Kirkpatrick et al., 2006; Galderisi et al., 2018). To address these treatment gaps, researchers are actively studying the behavioral and neurobiological processes that lead to amotivation and anhedonia in an effort to drive novel therapeutic development. These research efforts focus on disentangling the multifaceted nature of amotivation and anhedonia, to discern how poor reward pursuit may arise from failures at one or more steps in a dynamic sequence (Gold et al., 2008; Barch and Dowd, 2010; Kring and Barch, 2014).

But how do these aspects of brain and behavioral functioning, elaborated by recent research, translate to our understanding of an individual’s presentation in the clinic? That is, how can we refine our definitions of amotivation and anhedonia in terms of clinically relevant psychological processes (Bentall et al., 2010) to capitalize on our improved understanding of the underlying neurobiology? Standard mental health care does not typically make use of the kinds of behavioral or neurobiological assessments used in the laboratory; rather, when treating a patient, clinicians most often rely on retrospective interview techniques to uncover underlying difficulties in experienced pleasure or goal-directed pursuits. For example, Beck conceptualized schizophrenia by adapting his cognitive model of depression, in which he proposed that belief patterns about the self, the world, and the future (termed the cognitive triad) impact a person’s interpretations of events and shape their behavioral responses (Beck et al., 2009, 2019). Negative beliefs about social abilities and resource availability, as well as low expectations for success and pleasure, contribute to and maintain negative symptoms in schizophrenia (Beck and Rector, 2005; Rector et al., 2005). Kingdon and Turkington (2005) further suggest that coping abilities are pivotal to negative symptoms, as negative self-beliefs about performance efficacy and stress management abilities drive amotivation (Rector et al., 2005). These theoretical psychological frameworks are central to treating negative symptoms in schizophrenia using evidence-based behavioral interventions, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for psychosis (Elis et al., 2013). “Third wave” CBT approaches that promote mindfulness, compassion, and self-acceptance (e.g., mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, acceptance and commitment therapy), also show promise for alleviating negative symptoms (Khoury et al., 2013; Jansen et al., 2020). Taken together, psychological beliefs and attitudes are relevant to understanding and treating motivation and pleasure deficits in schizophrenia.

In this review we cover research that relates psychological characteristics with facets of motivation and pleasure. We aim to link laboratory studies of amotivation and anhedonia in schizophrenia with clinically relevant psychological constructs that are typically less considered in clinical neuroscience studies. We focus on approach motivation and positive reinforcement, and therefore do not include studies of avoidance and punishment (though we acknowledge the relevance of negative reinforcement and threat sensitivity to the negative symptoms of schizophrenia). When relevant, we include findings from the depression literature, because amotivation and anhedonia are transdiagnostic features also prevalent in depression (Barch et al., 2016), and because people with schizophrenia experience high rates of concurrent depressive symptoms that impact life satisfaction and motivation (Conley et al., 2007). We first briefly summarize key facets of models of motivation and pleasure deficits in schizophrenia. Next, we discuss dispositional characteristics that relate to psychological beliefs (e.g., optimism/pessimism, defeatist performance beliefs, asocial beliefs), as well as strategies for managing beliefs (e.g., cognitive reappraisal, mindfulness, rumination). We then cover interpersonal psychological tendencies that impact motivation and pleasure in a social context. Finally, we close with recommendations for integrating the study of psychological factors into experimental clinical research on schizophrenia.

Modeling Motivation and Pleasure Deficits in Schizophrenia: Contributions of Cognitive and Reward Processes

Heuristic models of motivation describe the fundamental and interconnected processes involved in translating hedonic experience into future goal pursuits (Gold et al., 2008; Barch and Dowd, 2010; Kring and Elis, 2013; Kring and Barch, 2014).

Hedonics

Hedonics refers to in-the-moment pleasure experienced from rewards. Historically, amotivation theories assumed that people with schizophrenia failed to pursue goal-directed activities due to anhedonia, an inability to experience pleasure (Rado, 1956). Empirical evidence over the past two decades yields a different and more nuanced account (Strauss et al., 2014, 2016). While findings from clinical interviews (Kirkpatrick et al., 2011; Strauss and Gold, 2012; Strauss et al., 2012a) and retrospective self-report questionnaires (meta-analysis by Visser et al., 2020) indicate that people with schizophrenia experience less consummatory pleasure, laboratory-based results often contradict this pattern (review by Kring and Moran, 2008). When exposed to putatively pleasant stimuli during laboratory-based assessments, people with and without schizophrenia report comparable levels of positive affect (Cohen and Minor, 2010; Llerena et al., 2012). Similar to laboratory-based studies, people with schizophrenia report equivalent positive affect in daily life when providing in-the-moment responses (or even after a several hour delay; Horan et al., 2006), despite engaging in fewer pleasurable activities relative to controls (Gard et al., 2007; Oorschot et al., 2013; Edwards et al., 2018). This suggests that important distinctions emerge based on whether anhedonia is assessed with momentary assessments of current behavior versus retrospective assessments of past behavior.

More recently, Strauss et al. (2016) argued that the theoretical framework for studying anhedonia in schizophrenia is inadequate. They proposed that the relative balance of positive and negative emotion at a given time point is critical for initiating approach behavior (Larsen et al., 2001). Individuals in the general population exhibit a positivity offset, i.e., they experience more positive than negative emotion to stimuli with lower affective intensity (i.e., more neutral) (Ito and Cacioppo, 2005). This balance is relevant to goal-directed behavior, as routine everyday activities are often more affectively neutral than salient, infrequent, or novel reward opportunities (though everyday goals can be important for attaining longer-term rewards). People with schizophrenia show a diminished positivity offset in situations where the motivational significance is weaker, and this diminished positivity offset correlated with greater self-reported and clinician-rated anhedonia (Strauss et al., 2017). Thus, a reduced positivity offset could help explain why schizophrenia is associated with less reward approach behavior, particularly in response to more neutral affective stimuli. In addition to a reduced positivity offset, other features of positive affect processing have been implicated in schizophrenia, including reductions in sustaining positive emotion (Strauss et al., 2020), and more co-activation of positive and negative emotion to pleasant stimuli than controls, resulting in a lower net hedonic value (Strauss et al., 2017, 2020). These data suggest that increased persistence of negative emotion, and decreased persistence of positive emotion, are both relevant to the clinical observation of anhedonia.

Reward Anticipation

Deficits in reward anticipation and reward learning have been put forth as key mechanisms for understanding motivation deficits in schizophrenia (Strauss et al., 2014; Barch et al., 2016; Waltz and Gold, 2016). Reward anticipation depends, in part, on prospection (the ability to imagine future experiences; Gilbert and Wilson, 2007) and episodic memory (the encoding and subsequent recall of past experiences) (Addis et al., 2007; Schacter and Addis, 2007). Prospection can induce in-the-moment positive emotion that helps an individual to predict their hedonic reaction to future events (i.e., affective anticipatory forecasting) (Frost and Strauss, 2016). People with schizophrenia have well-described episodic memory impairments (reviewed by Leavitt and Goldberg, 2009), and generate less clear and detailed future prospections, with less self-referential detail (D’Argembeau et al., 2008; Raffard et al., 2013; Painter and Kring, 2016). Moreover, they report less anticipated enjoyment from future experiences, which may undermine motivation (Kring and Barch, 2014). Meta-analytic evidence indicates a small-to-moderate reduction in reward anticipation in schizophrenia relative to unaffected comparison participants (Hallford and Sharma, 2019); further, longer illness duration and worse cognitive functioning predict greater deficits in reward anticipation. Schizophrenia is also associated with deficits in the maintenance of stimulus and reward relationships over time (Herbener, 2009), and poor maintenance of reward information may relate to anticipatory pleasure deficits (Wang et al., 2020).

Reward Learning

The ability to adapt behavior based on experience is critical for reward attainment. Reinforcement learning has two components: (i) learning associations that lead to reward (via positive reinforcement), and (ii) learning associations to avoid loss (via punishment) (Moran et al., 2019). Essentially, reward learning is the process by which an individual adjusts their future expectations and actions when faced with an outcome that differs from what was expected (Sutton and Barto, 2018). Mismatches between expected and obtained outcomes yield reward prediction errors, which are used to update value estimations and drive reward learning (Niv and Schoenbaum, 2008; Glimcher, 2011). Better-than-expected outcomes (i.e., positive prediction errors) facilitate goal pursuit, whereas worse-than-expected outcomes reduce goal pursuit, in a context-dependent manner.

Schizophrenia is associated with deficits in behavioral updating following feedback (Strauss et al., 2014), and in particular, learning from positive reinforcement (Waltz et al., 2007; Cicero et al., 2014; Dowd et al., 2016; Barch et al., 2017; Hartmann-Riemer et al., 2017). Reward information retention also degrades more rapidly as a function of negative symptom severity (Culbreth et al., 2021). Furthermore, working memory deficits are related to reward learning deficits in schizophrenia (Collins et al., 2014, 2017; Barch et al., 2017), suggesting that the ability to maintain environmental contingencies supports reinforcement learning. Thus, cognitive functions, like episodic and working memory, are central to understanding reward learning deficits in schizophrenia.

Value and Effort Computations

Behavioral and neuroimaging evidence suggest that amotivation in schizophrenia is influenced by difficulties representing and flexibly updating reward value in the context of learning (reviewed by Waltz and Gold, 2016). Importantly, motivated behavior is not only driven by representation of reward value, but also by computations about the benefits relative to the costs of the required work (Treadway et al., 2009). Alterations in cost-benefit calculations are thought to be related to motivation deficits in schizophrenia (Waltz and Gold, 2016). Accordingly, the willingness to exert effort has become an important focus of schizophrenia research (Culbreth et al., 2018). The representation of effort-cost computations can be modeled in the laboratory with simple motor tasks, such as the Effort Expenditure for Rewards (EEfRT) task (Treadway et al., 2009), which asks participants to choose between an easy (i.e., fewer button presses, resulting in smaller rewards) or hard (i.e., more button presses, resulting in larger rewards) option. Several studies report that people with schizophrenia are less likely to select the hard option (Fervaha et al., 2013; Barch et al., 2014; Huang et al., 2016), and that reduced effort exertion correlates with amotivation (Barch et al., 2014; Wolf et al., 2014; Moran et al., 2017). Similar findings of reduced effort in schizophrenia have been observed using tasks of cognitive effort (Culbreth et al., 2016b; Chang et al., 2020).

Psychological Dimensions Relevant to Amotivation and Anhedonia

Despite being key drivers of behavior, variation in personality or other psychological dimensions are not commonly studied in the cognitive sciences (Carver and Scheier, 2014). These psychological features may explain unique variance in motivation and pleasure deficits or interact with other features related to motivation and pleasure that are well-characterized in schizophrenia, as described above. Further, such cognitive-psychological interactions are rarely examined in the schizophrenia literature.

Optimism

Optimism is the tendency to expect positive outcomes in the future (Sharot, 2011), reflecting a confident, context-independent disposition toward life (Carver and Connor-Smith, 2010). Higher levels of optimism are associated with greater well-being across cultures and geographic regions (Gallagher et al., 2013), and with greater life satisfaction in people with schizophrenia (Seo and Lim, 2019).

Although more commonly studied in personality research than cognitive science, optimism can be construed as a cognitive construct, as it relies on future expectancies (Carver and Scheier, 2014). Consequently, optimism is relevant to the kinds of expectancy-value calculations involved in goal-directed behaviors (Carver and Connor-Smith, 2010). For instance, optimistic individuals are more confident about their likelihood of success and are willing to exert greater effort to attain a desired goal, as compared to pessimistic individuals (Nes et al., 2005; Carver and Connor-Smith, 2010). Trait-level optimism is also linked with reward expectations and learning. More optimistic individuals over-estimate the likelihood of reward from uncertain targets during Pavlovian conditioning (Stankevicius et al., 2014), consistent with basic science findings in which “optimistic” rats are more motivated than “pessimistic” rats to work for rewards (Rygula et al., 2015). And while purely rational agents should adjust their expectations when presented with disconfirming evidence (Sutton and Barto, 2018), humans update their expectations more in response to positive than negative feedback, consistent with a normative positivity/optimism bias (Sharot et al., 2011; Garrett and Sharot, 2017; Lefebvre et al., 2017; Marks and Baines, 2017). Conversely, the optimism bias is often absent or even reversed in people with depression (Strunk et al., 2006; Strunk and Adler, 2009; Garrett et al., 2014; Korn et al., 2014).

Few studies have examined optimism bias in schizophrenia, leaving open questions about whether the expected positivity bias is intact. In a sample of people with schizophrenia and unaffected comparison participants, Prentice et al. (2005) measured optimism bias as the extent to which a given participant rated their likelihood of experiencing adverse events as lower than others. The authors found that, while both groups showed unrealistic optimism in general, comparison participants endorsed higher optimism for controllable events (e.g., losing money while gambling). This finding is consistent with the idea that individuals with schizophrenia experience a reduced internal locus of control (i.e., less perceived control over outcomes as a result of personal ability/agency), as previously suggested by Fischer et al. (2015).

Optimism levels could moderate motivation through relationships with reward anticipation and reward learning. Because mental imagery is needed to simulate future reward outcomes, failures to generate rich positive future imagery may impact current and predicted pleasure in schizophrenia (Frost and Strauss, 2016; Painter and Kring, 2016; Yang et al., 2018). In a non-psychiatric community sample, dispositional optimism correlated with more vivid lab-assessed imagery of positive future events (Blackwell et al., 2013). While imagery has not been studied in connection with optimism in schizophrenia, the ability to simulate positive future imagery is impaired in dysphoric (Holmes et al., 2008) and depressed (Morina et al., 2011) individuals. The vividness of positive prospective imagery correlates with dispositional optimism in depression, suggesting meaningful heterogeneity in prospection as a function of trait optimism (Ji et al., 2017). Relative to unaffected comparison participants, people with schizophrenia generate less detailed and specific future imagery (meta-analysis by Hallford et al., 2018). Episodic memory deficits may contribute to poorer prospection (Frost and Strauss, 2016), based on evidence that people with schizophrenia are less likely to draw from past experiences during prospection (Painter and Kring, 2016). In addition to the role of memory, we (and others; Chen et al., 2016) speculate that individual differences in dispositional optimism may correlate with positive future imagery abilities in schizophrenia; that is, greater negative self-beliefs and reduced optimism may relate to deficits in positive imagery generation (Raffard et al., 2013; Chen et al., 2016).

Optimism may also influence how reward expectations are updated. Non-clinical participants with higher trait optimism show less encoding of undesirable information during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), as reflected by reduced fMRI activation in prefrontal cortex relative to less optimistic individuals (Sharot et al., 2011). Non-clinical participants also incorporate better-than-expected outcomes at a higher rate than worse-than-expected outcomes in a reward learning task, and more optimistic responders had a higher learning rate for positive relative to negative prediction errors, with pessimistic responders showing the opposite pattern (Lefebvre et al., 2017). Several studies report a selective deficit in learning from positive outcomes among people with schizophrenia, with learning from loss relatively spared (Waltz et al., 2007; Strauss et al., 2011; Gold et al., 2012; Hartmann-Riemer et al., 2017; though see Barch et al., 2017). An intriguing question is whether variation along the optimism–pessimism dimension relates to reward learning impairments in schizophrenia. For example, it is unknown whether higher levels of pessimism relate to overestimation of negative prediction errors in schizophrenia (and whether corresponding neural circuitry could explain such a relationship).

Negative Thinking Tendencies About the Self, Others, and the Future

Beck’s cognitive model of depression (Beck, 1967) postulates how early adverse events (e.g., childhood trauma, genetic or other biological predispositions) can contribute to the development of maladaptive cognitive schemas (e.g., “I am unlovable,” “things will never improve.”), negative emotions (e.g., sadness, hopelessness), and behavioral responses (e.g., withdrawal). Dysfunctional beliefs can bias attention and memory processes, thereby creating a negative feedback loop that perpetuates negative affect and can contribute to psychopathology. Beck later adapted his original cognitive model of depression to conceptualize schizophrenia, including negative symptoms and poor functional outcomes (Rector et al., 2005; Beck et al., 2009). Beck’s conceptualization of schizophrenia describes how biological vulnerabilities and/or discouraging experiences (e.g., social rejection, poor school performance) in combination with illness features (e.g., neurocognitive deficits) can develop and maintain low expectations for the future that foster amotivation (Beck et al., 2018). Within Beck’s model, the cognitive triad parses dysfunctional beliefs into thoughts about (i) the self, (ii) others, and (iii) the future (Clark et al., 1999); each of which has been found to correlate with amotivation in the general population (Pillny et al., 2018). Conversely, aspects of psychological well-being, such as experiences of autonomy, personal growth, and positive relations with others, correlate with less amotivation in people with schizophrenia (Strauss et al., 2012b).

Defeatist Performance Beliefs

Defeatist performance beliefs are one type of negative self-beliefs, and are characterized by overgeneralized, negative conclusions about one’s ability to execute goal-directed behaviors (e.g., “why even try, I always fail”). While historically conceptualized in the context of depression, research shows elevated defeatist performance beliefs in people with schizophrenia (Grant and Beck, 2009; Bentall et al., 2010; Horan et al., 2010), people with schizotypy (Luther et al., 2016), and CHR participants (Clay et al., 2021). A meta-analysis found that defeatist performance beliefs predict a small, but significant proportion of variance in negative symptoms (Campellone et al., 2016b), with many (although not all, McGovern et al., 2020) studies directly linking defeatist performance beliefs with motivation deficits in schizophrenia (Horan et al., 2010; Couture et al., 2011; Green et al., 2012; Ventura et al., 2014; Granholm et al., 2016; Lee and Yu, 2021). Further, defeatist performance beliefs may mediate both the relationship between neurocognitive deficits and negative symptoms among people with schizophrenia (Horan et al., 2010; Quinlan et al., 2014), and the relationship between role functioning and negative symptoms among CHR participants (Devoe et al., 2021).

Defeatist performance beliefs are associated with reduced willingness to expend effort in schizophrenia. For example, defeatist performance beliefs moderate the relationship between effort expenditure and clinical ratings of amotivation and anhedonia, in that individuals with the highest levels of defeatist performance beliefs and motivation and pleasure deficits put forth the lowest effort (Reddy et al., 2018). That is, negative performance beliefs about one’s own capabilities corresponded with less empirically measured effort. In a study where pupillary responses during a memory task indexed cognitive effort, Granholm et al. (2016) found that schizophrenia participants with severe defeatist performance beliefs did not increase effort. (Although a subsequent study measuring pupillary responses did not detect a direct relationship between cognitive effort and defeatist performance beliefs; McGovern et al., 2020). Defeatist performance beliefs also correlated with positive and negative schizotypy traits in non-clinical college students, with higher defeatist performance beliefs predicting less real-life goal progress, effort expenditure, and pleasure experience (measured from daily surveys; Campellone et al., 2019). Very little research has examined how defeatist performance beliefs relate to physical effort expenditure in schizophrenia, though one study did not observe a relationship between defeatist performance beliefs and willingness to exert force (Décombe et al., 2021).

In contrast to defeatist performance beliefs, self-efficacy reflects a person’s belief in their capacity to successfully execute the behaviors needed to attain a specific goal. Expectations of success positively correspond with behavior initiation and sustained effort (Bandura, 1977). For instance, self-efficacy moderates the relationship between laboratory-based functional capacity measures and self-reported daily functioning. When self-efficacy was high, there was a positive correlation between functional capacity and real-world functioning in schizophrenia participants, that was absent in a low self-efficacy sub-group (Cardenas et al., 2013); thus, self-efficacy may help explain why some individuals are better at translating ability into real-world pursuits than others. Importantly, the connection between self-efficacy and functioning may depend on clinical insight (Kurtz et al., 2013) and negative symptom severity (Pratt et al., 2005; Ventura et al., 2014), highlighting important individual difference factors that relate to self-efficacy and achievement outcomes in schizophrenia.

Asocial Beliefs

Fewer studies have examined how asocial beliefs (e.g., “I am better off alone,” “making new friends is not worth the effort”) impact motivation and pleasure in schizophrenia. Asocial beliefs, which fall under negative beliefs about others in Beck’s model, may arise from negative social experiences that contribute to reduced social engagement (Grant and Beck, 2010). Negative views of oneself or others might reduce social motivation, preventing the occurrence of more positive and corrective social experiences for people with psychosis (Rector et al., 2005; Jaya et al., 2017). This notion is supported by evidence that repeated experiences of experimentally induced social exclusion (e.g., during the Cyberball task) correlate with demotivating beliefs and motivational deficits (Pillny and Lincoln, 2020). Asocial beliefs correlate with less social behavior in people with schizophrenia, accounting for more unique variance in social functioning than negative or depressive symptoms (Grant and Beck, 2010). Additionally, asocial beliefs predict community participation among individuals with a psychotic disorder (Thomas et al., 2017), and mediate the effects of social functioning on negative symptoms in CHR participants (Devoe et al., 2021).

Low Expectancy Beliefs About the Future

The final component of the cognitive triad is negative views about the future. This component includes low expectancy beliefs about future pleasure (e.g., “I won’t enjoy the activity”), which can be (inversely) conceptualized as anticipatory pleasure beliefs, depending on the measurement scale. These beliefs are similar to dispositional optimism (or rather pessimism) in their future orientation, but low expectancy beliefs are more situationally specific, whereas optimistic/pessimistic beliefs reflect generalized expectations across contexts (Kube et al., 2018). Findings from a recent meta-analysis indicate that people across the schizophrenia spectrum self-report lower levels of anticipatory pleasure beliefs (Visser et al., 2020). Prior research links low expectations of future pleasure with amotivation in schizophrenia (Da Silva et al., 2017). One theory is that anticipatory pleasure beliefs mediate the translation of goal-intentions into goal-directed behavior (Pillny et al., 2020).

The relationship between anticipatory pleasure beliefs and motivation is evident from experimental studies of effort expenditure and reward learning. In a study using the EEfrt task in a university sample, anticipatory pleasure beliefs positively correlated with high-effort option selection when the probability of reward delivery was low (Geaney et al., 2015); that is, individuals who reported greater future pleasure expectancies were more willing to expend effort for larger but less likely rewards, suggesting a path by which pleasure expectancies may mitigate perceived effort costs to drive goal-pursuit. Anticipatory pleasure beliefs were also linked with the decision to pursue high-effort reward options among undergraduate students (Olino et al., 2021), and with greater persistence of effortful responding in individuals without a psychiatric history (DeRosse et al., 2019; though see Zou et al., 2020). Additionally, anticipatory pleasure beliefs relate to reward prediction signaling in non-clinical adults. Cooper et al. (2014) observed a positive relationship between self-reported anticipatory pleasure beliefs and the reward positivity (RewP) event-related potential (ERP) component. More specifically, people who expect more future pleasure appear to have enhanced neural signals related to reward learning and feedback. While the relationship between anticipatory pleasure beliefs with effort expenditure and reward learning in schizophrenia is unknown, this emerging body of work encourages additional study.

Reappraisal, Mindfulness, and Rumination: Navigating Negative Thought Patterns

Having covered how different psychological beliefs relate to motivated behavior in schizophrenia, we now discuss how individual variation in managing those beliefs may interact with motivation and pleasure processes.

Cognitive Reappraisal

Cognitive reappraisal is an emotion regulation strategy that involves mentally altering the meaning of a situation to mitigate its emotional impact (Gross, 1998, 2015). Reappraisal occurs early in the emotion generative process and is relatively more effective than response-focused strategies, like suppression (Gross, 2001). Reappraisal can be studied via experimental induction (i.e., participants are explicitly instructed to reappraise) or with trait measures that assess frequency of reappraisal use in daily life. Greater habitual use of reappraisal correlates with greater psychological well-being (Gross and John, 2003; McRae et al., 2012), and more resilience against depressive symptoms in the context of high stress (Troy et al., 2010).

Similar to findings from the general population, greater use of reappraisal correlates with more positive emotion in schizophrenia (Moran et al., 2018), highlighting a meaningful relationship between emotion regulation and affective experience. However, meta-analytic findings indicate suboptimal emotion regulation in schizophrenia, characterized by overreliance on less effective strategies such as rumination or distraction, along with a reduction in adaptive strategies like reappraisal (Ludwig et al., 2019). Strauss et al. (2016) theorize that deficits in managing negative emotion (e.g., reappraisal) may result in a net hedonic balance of more negative than positive emotion; this net negative balance may contribute to goal-directed and pleasure-seeking deficits, as a higher ratio of positive to negative emotion is thought to support motivational drive (Fredrickson, 2013). This is consistent with the assertion that people with schizophrenia have difficulty pursuing goals, especially in the context of negative emotion (Lawlor et al., 2020). For instance, relative to unaffected comparison participants, people with schizophrenia report greater difficulty pursuing goals while concurrently experiencing or anticipating negative emotions (Lincoln et al., 2015).

Etkin et al. (2015) recently proposed that emotion regulation can be couched within a reinforcement learning framework. From this perspective, reappraisal entails flexibly adjusting one’s emotional response model based on new contextual details, a working model of the environment, and one’s internal state. Decisional control within the reinforcement learning framework comprises both model-free (behavior guided entirely from prediction errors, assuming no prior knowledge) and model-based (behavior guided from rules and dynamic computation of optimal actions based on existing knowledge of that context). “Model-based” calculations have been shown to be deficient in schizophrenia when studied using a reward decision task (Culbreth et al., 2016a), and might help explain why individuals with schizophrenia are less effective at implementing reappraisal using both within-subject (Strauss et al., 2019), and case-control (Visser et al., 2018) experimental designs.

Reappraisal has been linked with reward cues and outcome responses in the general population. Using a reward time-estimation task in non-clinical participants, Kelley et al. (2019) found that individual variation in reappraisal tendencies correlated with more salience to rewarding cues (indexed by the cue-P3 ERP component), but not with ERP components related to reward anticipation or outcome processing; this fits with notions that reappraisal may exert its influence at a relatively early point in the emotion processing stream. In contrast to the positive relationship between self-reported reappraisal strategies and reward cue processing, studies that experimentally induce or manipulate reappraisal report findings consistent with appraisal having attenuating effects on reward outcome processing. For instance, during a gambling task, when undergraduate students were asked to use cognitive reappraisal, they self-rated reduced emotional responses to gains and losses (i.e., gains were less positive and losses less negative, when compared to a control condition) (Yang et al., 2013). Similarly, reappraisal led to blunting of the feedback-related negativity (FRN) and P3 ERP components, which capture early and later-stage outcome evaluation, respectively.

Further, in studies of the late positive potential (LPP) ERP component, the expected reduction in reactivity to unpleasant images observed in controls during reappraisal induction is reduced in schizotypy (Pan et al., 2020), and schizophrenia (at a trend level; Bartolomeo et al., 2020). Participants with schizophrenia also showed deficient pupil dilation during reappraisal relative to controls, suggesting that low cognitive effort is associated with ineffective reappraisal use (reflected by similar LPP amplitudes for the reappraisal and passive viewing conditions; Bartolomeo et al., 2020). Additional research is needed to test whether dispositional reappraisal similarly relates to effort in schizophrenia.

Mindfulness and Savoring

Mindfulness reflects attention to the present moment in a non-judgmental, non-reactive manner (Kabat-Zin, 1990; Brown and Ryan, 2003). It can be studied as an inherent individual difference (i.e., trait or disposition) (Baer et al., 2004), or one that is cultivated through practice (Kiken et al., 2015). For the purposes of this review, we focus on dispositional mindfulness. Greater dispositional mindfulness in the general population is associated with increased attention to internal experience, including awareness of emotions and somatic states (Shapiro et al., 2006; Hanley et al., 2017). Dispositional mindfulness positively correlates with health behaviors across psychiatric and non-psychiatric samples (meta-analysis by Sala et al., 2020). Meta-analytic findings also indicate that mindfulness relates more to intrinsic, than extrinsic, motivation (Donald et al., 2020), i.e., mindfulness relates to the pursuit of an activity because of genuine interest and enjoyment versus pursuit to attain an external outcome, like praise or money (Ryan and Deci, 2000).

Mindfulness impacts the awareness, labeling, and experience of emotions (Heppner et al., 2015), and awareness and acceptance of emotion are thought to be central features of emotion regulation (Gratz and Roemer, 2004). Accordingly, mindfulness may influence motivational processes through emotion regulatory mechanisms (Tang et al., 2015). Mindfulness meditation can be construed as a form of affective exposure, as meditators are taught to accept and tolerate negative internal experiences without responding (Baer, 2003; Treanor, 2011). Studies in non-psychiatric samples indicate trait mindfulness relates to greater self-reported mood regulation (Lyvers et al., 2014; Stevenson et al., 2019; Jin et al., 2020), an increased ability to let go of negative thoughts (Frewen et al., 2008), and a reduced frequency of negative automatic thoughts (Frewen et al., 2008). Electrophysiological studies of undergraduate students further exemplify the positive relationship between mindfulness and affective stability (review by Rau and Williams, 2016). For instance, more mindful individuals show attenuated responses to highly arousing unpleasant images (indexed by the LPP) (Brown et al., 2013), and less differentiation between reward and neutral feedback (indexed by the RewP) (Teper and Inzlicht, 2014). Additionally, higher mindful awareness and positive reappraisal predict greater self-efficacy following perceived failures (Hanley et al., 2015). Thus, the ability to mindfully attend to and/or positively regulate emotions may support goal maintenance in the face of unexpected or aversive obstacles. Mindfulness may also help individuals sustain effort in pursuit of a valued distal goal, even when the pursuit itself is not inherently rewarding, or is even aversive, like quitting and maintaining abstinence from cigarette smoking (Heppner et al., 2016).

There is a paucity of basic research on dispositional mindfulness in schizophrenia (Martins et al., 2017), despite the increasing use of mindfulness-based interventions for treating people with psychotic disorders (meta-analysis by Jansen et al., 2020). A foundational study by Tabak et al. (2015) found that people with schizophrenia reported lower levels of self-reported mindfulness relative to unaffected comparison participants (although others did not observe these group differences; López-Del-Hoyo et al., 2019). Less dispositional mindfulness correlates with worse overall symptom severity in people with schizophrenia (Hochheiser et al., 2020), including greater clinician-rated amotivation (Lee and Yu, 2021). Moreover, higher trait mindfulness is associated with self-report of more successful emotion regulation (increased cognitive reappraisal) in schizophrenia (Tabak et al., 2015). The degree to which the interplay between mindfulness and reappraisal enhances goal pursuit in schizophrenia thus warrants additional research.

Conceptually related to mindfulness is the construct of savoring (for the purposes of this review we refer specifically to “savoring the moment” versus savoring through reminiscence or anticipation) (Bryant and Smith, 2015). Savoring is the attention to, appreciation, and enhancement of positive experiences (Bryant and Verhoff, 2007). Although mindfulness and savoring are moderate-to-highly correlated (Beaumont, 2011; Kiken et al., 2017; Cheung and Lau, 2021), savoring is distinct from mindfulness in that it is restricted to positively valenced experiences (in contrast to mindfulness, which encompasses all aspects of current experience, regardless of positive, negative, or neutral valence) (Bryant and Verhoff, 2007). Savoring correlates with more positive emotion, particularly for individuals with high and moderate (but not low) levels of mindfulness (Kiken et al., 2017). Moreover, savoring correlates with more positive emotion during negative events, and lower negative emotions during positive events, which, overall, may help to amplify net positive emotion (Ma et al., 2020). People with schizophrenia report less savoring than unaffected comparison participants, which may impede the up-regulation of positive affect (Cassar et al., 2013). Greater self-report of savoring in people with schizophrenia also corresponds with more positive emotion, less negative emotion, and less clinician-rated amotivation (Moran et al., 2018). Taken together, both mindfulness and savoring relate to affective responsiveness in ways that are relevant to goal-directed behavior.

In contrast to mindfulness, active avoidance of negative internal experiences may undermine goal pursuit in schizophrenia. Experiential avoidance, which is inversely correlated with mindfulness (McCluskey et al., 2020), is the reluctance to have difficult internal experiences like negative thoughts or feelings, resulting in the avoidance or suppression of those negative internal experiences (Hayes et al., 2004). Willingness to experience negative emotions can be necessary for pursuing meaningful activities and attaining goals (Lawlor et al., 2020). People with schizophrenia report greater experiential avoidance than controls (Goldstone et al., 2011; Vorontsova et al., 2013). Whether experiential avoidance directly relates to motivation and pleasure functions in schizophrenia has not been well-studied.

Rumination

The process of carefully or repetitively thinking is called rumination, with trait rumination often conceptualized as a mental habit of repetitive self-focused thought (Watkins and Nolen-Hoeksema, 2014). Researchers typically study negative forms of rumination and rumination-associated distress (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008), which we focus on here, though we recognize growing interest in a broader dimension that includes positive rumination (Li et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2020).

Rumination amplifies a particular mood state. In the case of negative affect, rumination leads to elongated periods of depression, and thus increases risk for developing a depressive disorder (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). Whitmer and Gotlib (2013) hypothesize that a narrowing of attention in the context of negative affect can lead to a repetitive focus on negative thoughts, thus exacerbating negative mood states. Depressive rumination has been shown to covary with dysfunctional cognitions (Yapan et al., 2020), and interact with dysfunctional cognitions to predict the onset, number, and duration of future depressive episodes (Robinson and Alloy, 2003). In effect, rumination can enhance the harmful impact of negative schemas and cognitions. Unsurprisingly, rumination is inversely related to more adaptative thinking tendencies, like cognitive reappraisal (Beath et al., 2019).

Meta-analytic results indicate that there is an overreliance on rumination in schizophrenia (Ludwig et al., 2019). Moreover, rumination correlates with worse negative symptom severity (Halari et al., 2009), and greater positive symptom severity, such as persecutory ideation and auditory hallucinations (Hartley et al., 2014). More specifically, rumination may impact the balance of positive and negative affective experience, and co-activation of negative emotion may reduce the net hedonic value of stimuli rendering them less rewarding (Strauss et al., 2017). This notion is supported by empirical evidence that rumination induction increases negative affect and decreases positive affect in undergraduate students (McLaughlin et al., 2007). Further, momentary levels of rumination correlate with subsequent increases in negative affect and decreases in positive affect, among individuals with major depressive disorder and/or generalized anxiety disorder (Kircanski et al., 2018).

In addition, rumination may disrupt goal engagement and reward learning processes. For instance, when asked to solve anagrams, ruminators were less likely to skip an unsolvable anagram (van Randenborgh et al., 2010). This suggests that trait rumination corresponds with difficulties disengaging from unrealistic goals. With respect to reward learning, Takano et al. (2019) found that ruminative brooding correlates with worse performance on an emotional reversal learning task; in particular, high-trait ruminators were less able to detect changes in action-outcome contingencies on the probabilistic reinforcement task. In the depression literature, rumination is associated with greater elaboration of losses than gains during a gambling task, pointing to enhanced or sustained processing of negative information (Webb et al., 2017). To date, the impact of rumination on reward learning in schizophrenia has not been thoroughly examined. However, given the literature highlighting reward learning deficits in schizophrenia (Gold et al., 2008; Strauss et al., 2011; Waltz et al., 2011, 2018; Schlagenhauf et al., 2014), this is an area that merits investigation.

Social Motivation: Sensitivity to Reward and Approach Goal Orientation

Motivation is a process that occurs within the individual and can be shaped by internal psychological characteristics. However, motivation is also influenced by social context (Finkel et al., 2016). Social connection is central to motivation, as sharing goals with others can facilitate goal commitment (Ingledew et al., 2005), and receiving social support enables goal pursuit (Jakubiak and Feeney, 2016). Furthermore, social connection is a motivationally salient reward in and of itself (Baumeister and Leary, 1995). People with schizophrenia share a desire for social connection that is similar to those without the illness; they report similar levels of social interest (Trémeau et al., 2013) and are motivated by the same aspects of social connection (Weittenhiller et al., 2021). However, people with schizophrenia set fewer social goals in their daily lives (Gard et al., 2014) and report spending more time alone (Kasanova et al., 2018). What underpins the mismatch between intention and action? Social motivation theory posits that individual differences in sensitivity to social reward and threat underlie the translation from interest to behavior (Gable, 2006). Thus, social reward sensitivity may help explain social motivation in schizophrenia.

Modeling Social Motivation

According to Gable’s (2006) social motivation model, variation in social reward and threat sensitivity influence how people conceptualize their social goals, experience social connection, and define relational success. Social reward sensitivity (i.e., strength of social approach motive) refers to the degree to which positive reinforcers associated with social connection motivate goal-directed behavior (Russell and Mehrabian, 1978). This differs from sensitivity to social threat, which is primarily concerned with avoiding social punishments. We focus on social reward sensitivity in this review, as our emphasis is on approach motivation, and thus sensitivity to threat is outside our purview. Nonetheless, we acknowledge that the combination of diminished social reward sensitivity coupled with heightened social threat sensitivity may be particularly important to the conceptualization of social amotivation (Fulford et al., 2018).

Social Reward Sensitivity

Social reward sensitivity is a relatively stable trait that is separable from more generalized incentive sensitivities (e.g., behavioral activation system [BAS]) or attachment styles (Gable and Gosnell, 2013). In line with social motivation theory, individual differences in social reward sensitivity predict how people frame their social goals, such that people who are higher in this trait are more likely to adopt approach-oriented goals (e.g., make a new friend, spend quality time with their spouse) (Gable, 2015). Social reward sensitivity is also theorized to influence how people define success in relationships. Individuals with higher social reward sensitivity have more positive expectancies, leading them to behave in a way that elicits more positive responses from others (Gable, 2006).

Individual differences in social reward sensitivity correlate with interpersonal and intrapersonal outcomes, including social life satisfaction (Gable, 2006), feelings of belongingness (Nikitin and Freund, 2018), and subjective well-being (Nikitin and Freund, 2019). Diminished social reward sensitivity relates to social motivation difficulties (Fulford et al., 2018), which affect approximately half of people with schizophrenia (Bobes et al., 2010). In a study of general reward sensitivity, Reddy et al. (2014) identified a subgroup of people with schizophrenia who had both diminished reward sensitivity and diminished social motivation; this group had particularly poor social functioning, underscoring the negative impact associated with motivational difficulties. People with schizophrenia also show reduced social reward-related caudate nucleus activation during a cooperative task (Gromann et al., 2013) and reduced activation in the ventral striatum, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate cortex in response to smiling face images (Lee et al., 2019). In the general population, social reward sensitivity is associated with positive affective experiences during pleasant social interactions (Laurenceau et al., 2010). In contrast, people with schizophrenia demonstrate diminished consummatory pleasure in laboratory-based social learning tasks (Campellone and Kring, 2018; Campellone et al., 2018). However, following social role-play (Aghevli et al., 2003) and when connecting with others in daily life (Mote and Fulford, 2020), people with and without schizophrenia do not differ in reported positive affect. Social reward sensitivity could help clarify these mixed findings. Aligned with Strauss et al.’s (2017) assertion that people with schizophrenia demonstrate a reduced positivity offset when motivational significance is low, as described previously, the social incentives used in laboratory-based tasks may be undetectable to individuals who have a diminished social reward sensitivity.

A defining feature of social reward sensitivity is the role of incentives for social connection. Empirical evidence suggests that those more sensitive to social reward are more likely to adopt goals and definitions of relationship quality that emphasize social incentives (Elliot et al., 2006; Gable and Poore, 2008). Adopting social approach-oriented goals, such as spending more quality time with family, is associated with less loneliness and more positive attitudes toward relationships (Gable, 2006). People with a higher social reward sensitivity prioritize the presence of relationship growth over security when defining relationship success (Gable and Poore, 2008; Cortes et al., 2018). Though recent work has identified that people with schizophrenia are more motivated by the affiliative aspects of social connection than by instrumental benefits or a sense of obligation (Weittenhiller et al., 2021), it is unclear to what degree this affiliative motivation stems from a desire to gain social incentives (e.g., companionship, support), rather than a desire to avoid social punishments (e.g., loneliness, rejection). It is possible that people with schizophrenia with social motivation difficulties undervalue social incentives. Future work that explores how people with schizophrenia evaluate social connection, frame social goals, and define relationship success, is thus warranted.

Social reward sensitivity has implications for social reward learning. After experiences of social acceptance, people with heightened social reward sensitivity are more likely to attribute positive social outcomes to internal, stable, and global causes (Schoch et al., 2015). These attributions, in turn, predict greater anticipation of future positive social experiences (Nikitin et al., 2019). Though little is known about how people with schizophrenia make sense of social acceptance (or rejection) experiences, studies suggest they anticipate less pleasure for future positive social interactions (Engel et al., 2016; Campellone and Kring, 2018); although we note that people with schizophrenia still learn from positive social interactions and anticipate more pleasure for subsequent interactions with the same people (Campellone and Kring, 2018). In the general population, individuals with higher social reward sensitivity exhibit a positive social memory bias (Strachman and Gable, 2006), and have greater regional gray matter volume in prospection and valuation brain areas, including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (Crawford et al., 2020). Consequently, social prospection and memory abilities may play a role in social reward sensitivity and social pleasure expectancies.

A particular challenge for people with schizophrenia is the conversion of social interest into goal-directed behavior. Schizophrenia is associated with less willingness to take social risks (Kéri et al., 2009) or expend effort to increase the likelihood of positive social interactions (Campellone et al., 2018), compared to people without the illness. People with schizophrenia report less willingness to engage in approach behaviors toward socially rewarding stimuli (Radke et al., 2015) or other people (de la Asuncion et al., 2015). And those who exhibit more social withdrawal may be particularly prone to effort expenditure deficits (Fulford et al., 2018). In non-clinical undergraduate samples, social reward sensitivity corresponds with increased engagement in approach behavior (e.g., initiating new relationships; Nikitin et al., 2019) and more frequent positive social interactions in daily life (Gable, 2006). It follows that people with schizophrenia with a diminished sensitivity to social reward may be less likely to expend social effort or engage in social approach behaviors. Fortunately, research on the treatment of social anxiety disorder suggests that interventions that target the interpersonal beliefs and behaviors associated with diminished sensitivity to social reward can successfully increase social approach behaviors (Plasencia et al., 2016; Alden et al., 2018).

Other Considerations When Studying Psychological Attributes in Relation to Motivation and Pleasure Deficits in Schizophrenia

Adversity, Stigma, and Stress

Although beyond the focus of this review, it is important to acknowledge the impact of early life adversity, psychosocial stress, and stigma on the formation of belief systems and cognitive schemas (Grant and Beck, 2009). This is highly relevant to schizophrenia, a disorder associated with high rates of childhood adversity (Matheson et al., 2013), which can impact cognitive development (Wells et al., 2020), and correspond with reward processing alterations throughout the lifespan (Dillon et al., 2009; Birn et al., 2017; Hanson et al., 2017; Herzberg and Gunnar, 2020). Barriers to social engagement, such as internalized stigma, rejection, and limited finances, are more common among people with schizophrenia (Weittenhiller et al., 2021). Diminished social reward sensitivity in schizophrenia may stem, in part, from an accumulation of negative social interactions. People with schizophrenia report more social stress in their daily lives (Mote and Fulford, 2020), and are more likely to experience stigma related to their condition than those with other serious illnesses, such as depression, cancer, or AIDS (Corrigan et al., 2000; Rossler, 2016). Stigma may play a role in the development and maintenance of low pleasure, success, and social acceptance expectancies (Rector et al., 2005); internalized stigma of mental illness is associated with worse defeatist performance beliefs and lower expectations for success in people with schizophrenia (Park et al., 2013). People with psychosis are also twice as likely as unaffected comparison participants to report bullying victimization (Trotta et al., 2013). CHR youth who experience bullying report more severe asocial and defeatist performance beliefs (Braun et al., 2021). Alternatively, adaptive beliefs, like those related to self-efficacy, are associated with resilience to adversity (Schwarzer and Warner, 2013), including after trauma (Luszczynska et al., 2009).

Positive Symptomology

Positive symptoms of schizophrenia, such as paranoia or suspiciousness, may also impact motivation, particularly in a social context. For instance, during a reversal learning task with social interactions as reward, placing more trust in a social partner correlated with better real-world social functioning, greater motivation, and less suspiciousness in people with schizophrenia (Campellone et al., 2016a). People with schizophrenia who experience paranoia may tend toward active social avoidance, rather than passive social withdrawal, which may further preclude social interaction (Hansen et al., 2009; Brown et al., 2014). Thus, though positive symptoms were not a focus of this review, the full range of schizophrenia symptomatology holds relevance for understanding amotivation and low social drive in this population.

Future Research Directions

As a complement to questionnaires for specific traits or characteristics, researchers can broadly assess an individual’s personality structure, incorporating measures that capture the full range of a given psychological dimension, from adaptive to maladaptive (or pathological). This is important given that the areas most developed in the literature to date pertain to how dysfunctional attitudes relate to goal deficits in schizophrenia, while positive characteristics like optimism and mindfulness are less well-studied in schizophrenia. In addition to questionnaires and inventories, researchers can adopt experimental procedures for capturing individual variation in psychological dimensions. One example is how Lefebvre et al. (2017) identified optimistic participants empirically, based on responses during a reward learning task. This approach provides a translational parallel with animal studies, where trait-like tendencies are similarly inferred from behavior patterns (e.g., the “optimistic” rats during an operant condition task; Rygula et al., 2015). In such cases, assessments are not biased by the participant’s self-report. Psychological characteristics can also be measured via experimental inductions, such as those described in studies of reappraisal and rumination (e.g., Whitmer et al., 2012; Bartolomeo et al., 2020); although more work is needed to understand how these experimental inductions relate to self-report assessments (especially given evidence for weak relationships between self-report and behavioral measures intended to capture the same construct; Dang et al., 2020).

These same psychological processes can inform treatment applications. People with schizophrenia report significantly less use of reappraisal and mindfulness and an overreliance on rumination. These, along with other psychological dimensions reviewed, are all processes that are addressed in common psychotherapeutic interventions. Key research questions are whether individual differences in baseline use of these processes can guide treatment selection, whether these processes can be modified in schizophrenia via interventions, and whether modifying these processes actually leads to meaningful improvements for people with schizophrenia. For example, across multiple study populations, mindfulness training techniques produce small to moderate increases in dispositional mindfulness measures, and changes in dispositional mindfulness correlate with improvements in other treatment outcomes related to mental health and well-being (meta-analysis by Quaglia et al., 2016). Mindfulness-based interventions are increasingly popular for schizophrenia (Jansen et al., 2020), and a logical next question is whether individual variation in dispositional mindfulness can help identify who will benefit most from those treatments. Conversely, baseline rumination tendencies may inform treatment outcomes, following recent evidence that lower levels of pretreatment rumination correlated with better quality of life at the end of treatment in people with anxiety disorders seeking CBT (Bredemeier et al., 2020). As noted above, defeatist performance and asocial beliefs contribute to real-world functioning and negative symptoms of schizophrenia (Campellone et al., 2016b; Thomas et al., 2017), rendering them important therapeutic targets (Granholm et al., 2018). Future work is needed to understand the relative contribution of these various psychological dimensions and beliefs to amotivation and anhedonia in schizophrenia, and to determine which components are malleable with treatment.

Conclusion

This review covered how individual variation in psychological beliefs, and approaches for managing those beliefs, informs the study of motivation and pleasure in schizophrenia. We considered psychological features at the level of the individual as well as within an external, social context. We started with broader dispositional traits, such as optimism/pessimism, followed by propensities toward more specific negative beliefs about the self, others, and the future, and lastly covered strategies for managing thoughts and beliefs. While the literature regarding optimism and schizophrenia is rather small, insights from the general population and those with depression suggest that optimism may relate to reward anticipation. An increasing number of studies are examining how negative beliefs correlate with lower effort expenditure in schizophrenia, with the most consistent findings for defeatist performance beliefs. Psychological strategies that mitigate negative cognitions, like reappraisal and mindfulness are associated with reward responsivity. Comparatively, rumination has been associated with abnormal reward learning, as observed in non-psychiatric and depression samples. Finally, with respect to intrapersonal characteristics, social reward sensitivity relates to how an individual values social connection, how they learn from social experiences, and their willingness to expend effort for social rewards (although some of these relationships are yet to be tested in schizophrenia, directly).

There is a sizeable literature on the specific cognitive and reward processing features that underlie amotivation and anhedonia. What we propose here is that incorporating assessments of an individual’s beliefs about themselves, others, and the future may add to our understanding of motivation and pleasure functions in schizophrenia. Whether these psychological dimensions simply complement or interact with other cognitive and reward processing mechanisms is largely unknown. A more comprehensive study of these features, and their potential interactions, is needed to understand the relative contributions of these factors to motivation and pleasure deficits.

Amotivation and anhedonia remain unmet therapeutic needs (Galderisi et al., 2018) with profound impacts on real-world functional outcomes (Fervaha et al., 2014), even relative to neurocognitive deficits (Milev et al., 2005) and positive symptoms (Fenton and McGlashan, 1991; Rabinowitz et al., 2012). For several of the domains we covered, the relevant schizophrenia literature is small; consequently, these domains represent novel research directions warranting future study. While this review focused on schizophrenia, motivation processes have clear transdiagnostic relevance (Barch et al., 2016). Some of the psychological characteristics we cover are well-described in the clinical psychotherapeutic literature (like defeatist beliefs, mindfulness, and rumination), while others are prominent in personality research (like optimism). We underscore this opportunity to bridge these literatures with experimental clinical neuroscience research on amotivation and anhedonia to facilitate novel therapeutic development.

Author Contributions

SA, LW, and SF substantially contributed to conception and writing the review, with SF providing oversight as the senior and corresponding author. CB conducted literature searches and edited the manuscript. JM, DM, and JF critically reviewed the manuscript. All authors read and approved the submitted version.

Funding

This work was supported by the Department of Veterans Affairs (CX001980 to SF; CX000497 to JF). SA was supported by the Department of Veterans Affairs Office of Academic Affiliations, the Advanced Fellowship Program in Mental Illness Research and Treatment, and the Department of Veterans Affairs Sierra Pacific Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center (MIRECC). JF was supported by a Veterans Affairs Senior Research Career Scientist award.

Conflict of Interest

DM consults for Boehringer Ingelheim International, Cadent Therapeutics, Syndesi Therapeutics, Recognify Life Sciences, and Gilgamesh Pharmaceuticals.

The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

References

Addis, D. R., Wong, A. T., and Schacter, D. L. (2007). Remembering the past and imagining the future: common and distinct neural substrates during event construction and elaboration. Neuropsychologia 45, 1363–1377. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.10.016

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Aghevli, M. A., Blanchard, J. J., and Horan, W. P. (2003). The expression and experience of emotion in schizophrenia: a study of social interactions. Psychiatry Res. 119, 261–270. doi: 10.1016/S0165-1781(03)00133-1

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Alden, L. E., Buhr, K., Robichaud, M., Trew, J. L., and Plasencia, M. L. (2018). Treatment of social approach processes in adults with social anxiety disorder. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 86, 505–517. doi: 10.1037/ccp0000306

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Baer, R. A. (2003). Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: a conceptual and empirical review. Clin. Psychol. Sci. Pract. 10, 125–143. doi: 10.1093/clipsy/bpg015

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., and Allen, K. B. (2004). Assessment of mindfulness by self-report: the kentucky inventory of mindfulness skills. Assessment 11, 191–206. doi: 10.1177/1073191104268029

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychol. Rev. 84, 191–215. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Barch, D. M., and Dowd, E. C. (2010). Goal representations and motivational drive in schizophrenia: the role of prefrontal-striatal interactions. Schizophr. Bull. 36, 919–934. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbq068

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Barch, D. M., Carter, C. S., Gold, J. M., Johnson, S. L., Kring, A. M., MacDonald, A. W., et al. (2017). Explicit and implicit reinforcement learning across the psychosis spectrum. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 126, 694–711. doi: 10.1037/abn0000259

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Barch, D. M., Pagliaccio, D., and Luking, K. (2016). Mechanisms underlying motivational deficits in psychopathology: similarities and differences in depression and schizophrenia. Curr. Top. Behav. Neurosci. 27, 411–449. doi: 10.1007/7854_2015_376

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Barch, D. M., Treadway, M. T., and Schoen, N. (2014). Effort, anhedonia, and function in schizophrenia: reduced effort allocation predicts amotivation and functional impairment. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 123, 387–397. doi: 10.1037/a0036299

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bartolomeo, L. A., Culbreth, A. J., Ossenfort, K. L., and Strauss, G. P. (2020). Neurophysiological evidence for emotion regulation impairment in schizophrenia: the role of visual attention and cognitive effort. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 129, 670–676. doi: 10.1037/abn0000580

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Baumeister, R. F., and Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychol. Bull. 117, 497–529. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Beath, A. P., McDonald, K., Osborn, T. C., and Jones, M. P. (2019). The positive effect of mindfulness rivals the negative effect of neuroticism on gastrointestinal symptoms. Mindfulness (N. Y.) 10, 712–723. doi: 10.1007/s12671-018-1019-8

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Beaumont, S. L. (2011). Identity styles and wisdom during emerging adulthood: relationships with mindfulness and savoring. Identity 11, 155–180. doi: 10.1080/15283488.2011.557298

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Beck, A. T. (1967). Depression: Clinical, Experimental And Theoretical Aspects. New York, NY: Hoeber.

Google Scholar

Beck, A. T., and Rector, N. A. (2005). Cognitive approaches to schizophrenia: theory and therapy. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 1, 577–606. doi: 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144205

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Beck, A. T., Himelstein, R., and Grant, P. M. (2019). In and out of schizophrenia: activation and deactivation of the negative and positive schemas. Schizophr. Res. 203, 55–61. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2017.10.046

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Beck, A. T., Himelstein, R., Bredemeier, K., Silverstein, S. M., and Grant, P. (2018). What accounts for poor functioning in people with schizophrenia: a re-evaluation of the contributions of neurocognitive v. attitudinal and motivational factors. Psychol. Med. 48, 2776–2785. doi: 10.1017/S0033291718000442

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Beck, A. T., Rector, N. A., Stolar, N., and Grant, P. M. (2009). Schizophrenia: Cognitive Theory, Research, and Therapy. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Google Scholar

Bentall, R. P., Simpson, P. W., Lee, D. A., Williams, S., Elves, S., Brabbins, C., et al. (2010). Motivation and avolition in schizophrenia patients: the role of self-efficacy. Psychosis 2, 12–22. doi: 10.1080/17522430903505966

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Birn, R. M., Roeber, B. J., Pollak, S. D., and Reyna, V. F. (2017). Early childhood stress exposure, reward pathways, and adult decision making. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 114, 13549–13554. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1708791114

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Blackwell, S. E., Rius-Ottenheim, N., Schulte-van Maaren, Y. W. M., Carlier, I. V. E., Middelkoop, V. D., Zitman, F. G., et al. (2013). Optimism and mental imagery: a possible cognitive marker to promote well-being? Psychiatry Res. 206, 56–61. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2012.09.047

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Blanchard, J. J., and Cohen, A. S. (2006). The structure of negative symptoms within schizophrenia: implications for assessment. Schizophr. Bull. 32, 238–245. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbj013

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Blanchard, J. J., Kring, A. M., Horan, W. P., and Gur, R. (2011). Toward the next generation of negative symptom assessments: the collaboration to advance negative symptom assessment in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 37, 291–299. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbq104

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bobes, J., Arango, C., Garcia-Garcia, M., and Rejas, J. (2010). Prevalence of negative symptoms in outpatients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders treated with antipsychotics in routine clinical practice: findings from the CLAMORS study. J. Clin. Psychiatry 71, 280–286. doi: 10.4088/JCP.08m04250yel

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Braun, A., Santesteban-Echarri, O., Cadenhead, K. S., Cornblatt, B. A., Granholm, E., and Addington, J. (2021). Bullying and social functioning, schemas, and beliefs among youth at clinical high risk for psychosis. Early Interv. Psychiatry 16, 281–288. doi: 10.1111/eip.13157

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bredemeier, K., Lieblich, S., and Foa, E. B. (2020). Pretreatment levels of rumination predict cognitive-behavioral therapy outcomes in a transdiagnostic sample of adults with anxiety-related disorders. J. Anxiety Disord. 75:102277. doi: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102277

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Brown, E. C., Tas, C., Kuzu, D., Esen-Danaci, A., Roelofs, K., and Brüne, M. (2014). Social approach and avoidance behaviour for negative emotions is modulated by endogenous oxytocin and paranoia in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res. 219, 436–442. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2014.06.038

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Brown, K. W., and Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 84, 822–848. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Brown, K. W., Goodman, R. J., and Inzlicht, M. (2013). Dispositional mindfulness and the attenuation of neural responses to emotional stimuli. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 8, 93–99. doi: 10.1093/scan/nss004

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bryant, F. B., and Smith, J. L. (2015). Appreciating life in the midst of adversity: savoring in relation to mindfulness. Reappraisal Meaning. Psychol. Inq. 26, 315–321. doi: 10.1080/1047840X.2015.1075351

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bryant, F. B., and Verhoff, J. (2007). Savoring: A New Model Of Positive Experience. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.

Google Scholar

Campellone, T. R., and Kring, A. M. (2018). Anticipated pleasure for positive and negative social interaction outcomes in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res. 259, 203–209. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2017.09.084

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Campellone, T. R., Fisher, A. J., and Kring, A. M. (2016a). Using social outcomes to inform decision-making in schizophrenia: relationships with symptoms and functioning. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 125, 310–321. doi: 10.1037/abn0000139

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Campellone, T. R., Sanchez, A. H., and Kring, A. M. (2016b). Defeatist performance beliefs, negative symptoms, and functional outcome in schizophrenia: a meta-analytic review. Schizophr. Bull. 42, 1343–1352. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbw026

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Campellone, T. R., Sanchez, A. H., Fulford, D., and Kring, A. M. (2019). Defeatist performance beliefs in college students: transdiagnostic associations with symptoms and daily goal-directed behavior. Psychiatry Res. 272, 149–154. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2018.12.045

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Campellone, T. R., Truong, B., Gard, D., and Schlosser, D. A. (2018). Social motivation in people with recent-onset schizophrenia spectrum disorders. J. Psychiatr. Res. 99, 96–103. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2018.01.006

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Cardenas, V., Abel, S., Bowie, C. R., Tiznado, D., Depp, C. A., Patterson, T. L., et al. (2013). When functional capacity and real-world functioning converge: the role of self-efficacy. Schizophr. Bull. 39, 908–916. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbs004

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Carver, C. S., and Connor-Smith, J. (2010). Personality and coping. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 61, 679–704. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100352

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Carver, C. S., and Scheier, M. F. (2014). Dispositional optimism. Trends Cogn. Sci. 18, 293–299.

Google Scholar

Cassar, R., Applegate, E., and Bentall, R. P. (2013). Poor savouring and low self-efficacy are predictors of anhedonia in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Psychiatry Res. 210, 830–834. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2013.09.017

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Chang, W. C., Westbrook, A., Strauss, G. P., Chu, A. O. K., Chong, C. S. Y., Siu, C. M. W., et al. (2020). Abnormal cognitive effort allocation and its association with amotivation in first-episode psychosis. Psychol. Med. 50, 2599–2609. doi: 10.1017/S0033291719002769

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Chen, X., Liu, L., Cui, J., Wang, Y., Chen, A., Li, F., et al. (2016). Schizophrenia spectrum disorders show reduced specificity and less positive events in mental time travel. Front. Psychol. 7:1121. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01121

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Cheung, R. Y. M., and Lau, E. N. S. (2021). Is mindfulness linked to life satisfaction? Testing savoring positive experiences and gratitude as mediators. Front. Psychol. 12:591103. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.591103

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Cicero, D. C., Martin, E. A., Becker, T. M., and Kerns, J. G. (2014). Reinforcement learning deficits in people with schizophrenia persist after extended trials. Psychiatry Res. 220, 760–764. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2014.08.013

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Clark, D. A., Beck, A. T., and Alford, B. A. (1999). Scientific Foundations of Cognitive Theory and Therapy of Depression. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Google Scholar

Clay, K. B., Raugh, I. M., Bartolomeo, L. A., and Strauss, G. P. (2021). Defeatist performance beliefs in individuals at clinical high-risk for psychosis and outpatients with chronic schizophrenia. Early Interv. Psychiatry 15, 865–873. doi: 10.1111/eip.13024

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Cohen, A. S., and Minor, K. S. (2010). Emotional experience in patients with schizophrenia revisited: meta-analysis of laboratory studies. Schizophr. Bull. 36, 143–150. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbn061

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Collins, A. G. E., Albrecht, M. A., Waltz, J. A., Gold, J. M., and Frank, M. J. (2017). Interactions among working memory. reinforcement learning, and effort in value-based choice: a new paradigm and selective deficits in schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry 82, 431–439. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2017.05.017

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Collins, A. G. E., Brown, J. K., Gold, J. M., Waltz, J. A., and Frank, M. J. (2014). Working memory contributions to reinforcement learning impairments in schizophrenia. J. Neurosci. 34, 13747–13756. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0989-14.2014

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Conley, R. R., Ascher-Svanum, H., Zhu, B., Faries, D. E., and Kinon, B. J. (2007). The burden of depressive symptoms in the long-term treatment of patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 90, 186–197. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2006.09.027

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Cooper, A. J., Duke, É, Pickering, A. D., and Smillie, L. D. (2014). Individual differences in reward prediction error: contrasting relations between feedback-related negativity and trait measures of reward sensitivity, impulsivity and extraversion. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 8:2478. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00248

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Corrigan, P. W., River, L. P., Lundin, R. K., Wasowski, K. U., Campion, J., Mathisen, J., et al. (2000). Stigmatizing attributions about mental illness. J. Community Psychol. 28, 91–102. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1520-6629(200001)28:1<91::AID-JCOP9<3.0.CO;2-M

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Cortes, K., Scholer, A. A., Kohler, A., and Cavallo, J. V. (2018). Perceiving relationship success through a motivational lens: a regulatory focus perspective. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 44, 795–808. doi: 10.1177/0146167217747547

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Couture, S. M., Blanchard, J. J., and Bennett, M. E. (2011). Negative expectancy appraisals and defeatist performance beliefs and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res. 189, 43–48. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2011.05.032

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Crawford, B., Muhlert, N., MacDonald, G., and Lawrence, A. D. (2020). Brain structure correlates of expected social threat and reward. Sci. Rep. 10, 1–13. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-74334-z

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Culbreth, A. J., Moran, E. K., and Barch, D. M. (2018). Effort-based decision-making in schizophrenia. Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci. 22, 1–6. doi: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.12.003

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Culbreth, A. J., Waltz, J. A., Frank, M. J., and Gold, J. M. (2021). Retention of value representations across time in people with schizophrenia and healthy control subjects. Biol. Psychiatry Cogn. Neurosci. Neuroimaging 6, 420–428. doi: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2020.05.009

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Culbreth, A. J., Westbrook, A., Daw, N. D., Botvinick, M., and Barch, D. M. (2016a). Reduced model-based decision-making in schizophrenia. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 125, 777–787. doi: 10.1037/abn0000164

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Culbreth, A. J., Westbrook, A., and Barch, D. (2016b). Negative symptoms are associated with an increased subjective cost of cognitive effort. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 125, 528–536. doi: 10.1037/abn0000153

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

D’Argembeau, A., Raffard, S., and Van der Linden, M. (2008). Remembering the past and imagining the future in schizophrenia. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 117, 247–251. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.117.1.247

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Da Silva, S., Saperia, S., Siddiqui, I., Fervaha, G., Agid, O., Daskalakis, Z. J., et al. (2017). Investigating consummatory and anticipatory pleasure across motivation deficits in schizophrenia and healthy controls. Psychiatry Res. 254, 112–117. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2017.04.040

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Dang, J., King, K. M., and Inzlicht, M. (2020). Why are self-report and behavioral measures weakly correlated? Trends Cogn. Sci. 24, 267–269. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2020.01.007

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

de la Asuncion, J., Docx, L., Sabbe, B., Morrens, M., and de Bruijn, E. R. A. (2015). Converging evidence of social avoidant behavior in schizophrenia from two approach-avoidance tasks. J. Psychiatr. Res. 69, 135–141. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.08.008

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Décombe, A., Salesse, R., Jourdan, J., Laraki, Y., Capdevielle, D., and Raffard, S. (2021). Yes, they can! Efficient physical effort mobilization according to task difficulty in schizophrenia. Motiv. Emot. 45, 422–435. doi: 10.1007/s11031-021-09890-6

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

DeRosse, P., Barber, A. D., Fales, C. L., and Malhotra, A. K. (2019). Deconstructing avolition: initiation vs persistence of reward-directed effort. Psychiatry Res. 273, 647–652. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.073

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Devoe, D. J., Cadenhead, K. S., Cornblatt, B. A., Granholm, E. L., and Addington, J. (2021). Negative symptoms: associations with defeatist beliefs, self-efficacy, and maladaptive schemas in youth and young adults at-risk for psychosis. Behav. Cogn. Psychother. 17, 1–14. doi: 10.1017/S1352465821000461

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Dillon, D. G., Holmes, A. J., Birk, J. L., Brooks, N., Lyons-Ruth, K., and Pizzagalli, D. A. (2009). Childhood adversity is associated with left basal ganglia dysfunction during reward anticipation in adulthood. Biol. Psychiatry 66, 206–213. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.02.019

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Donald, J. N., Bradshaw, E. L., Ryan, R. M., Basarkod, G., Ciarrochi, J., Duineveld, J. J., et al. (2020). Mindfulness and its association with varied types of motivation: a systematic review and meta-analysis using self-determination theory. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 46, 1121–1138. doi: 10.1177/0146167219896136

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Dowd, E. C., Frank, M. J., Collins, A., Gold, J. M., and Barch, D. M. (2016). Probabilistic reinforcement learning in patients with schizophrenia: relationships to anhedonia and avolition. Biol. Psychiatry Cogn. Neurosci. Neuroimaging 1, 460–473. doi: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2016.05.005

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Edwards, C. J., Cella, M., Emsley, R., Tarrier, N., and Wykes, T. H. M. (2018). Exploring the relationship between the anticipation and experience of pleasure in people with schizophrenia: an experience sampling study. Schizophr. Res. 202, 72–79. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2018.06.040

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Elis, O., Caponigro, J. M., and Kring, A. M. (2013). Psychosocial treatments for negative symptoms in schizophrenia: current practices and future directions. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 33, 914–928. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2013.07.001

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Elliot, A. J., Gable, S. L., and Mapes, R. R. (2006). Approach and avoidance motivation in the social domain. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 32, 378–391. doi: 10.1177/0146167205282153

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Engel, M., Fritzsche, A., and Lincoln, T. M. (2016). Anticipation and experience of emotions in patients with schizophrenia and negative symptoms. An experimental study in a social context. Schizophr. Res. 170, 191–197. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2015.11.028

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Etkin, A., Büchel, C., and Gross, J. J. (2015). The neural bases of emotion regulation. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 16, 693–700. doi: 10.1038/nrn4044

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Fenton, W. S., and McGlashan, T. H. (1991). Natural history of schizophrenia subtypes. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 48:978. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1991.01810350018003

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Fervaha, G., Foussias, G., Agid, O., and Remington, G. (2013). Neural substrates underlying effort computation in schizophrenia. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 37, 2649–2665. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.09.001

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Fervaha, G., Foussias, G., Agid, O., and Remington, G. (2014). Impact of primary negative symptoms on functional outcomes in schizophrenia. Eur. Psychiatry 29, 449–455. doi: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2014.01.007

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Finkel, E. J., Fitzsimons, G. M., and vanDellen, M. R. (2016). “Self-regulation as a transactive process: reconceptualizing the unit of analysis for goal setting, pursuit, and outcomes,” in Handbook of Self-Regulation: Research, Theory, and Applications, eds K. D. Vohs and R. F. Baumeister (New York, NY: Guilford), 264–282.

Google Scholar

Fischer, B. A., McMahon, R. P., Kelly, D. L., Wehring, H. J., Meyer, W. A., Feldman, S., et al. (2015). Risk-taking in schizophrenia and controls with and without cannabis dependence. Schizophr. Res. 161, 471–477. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2014.11.009

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Fredrickson, B. L. (2013). Updated thinking on positivity ratios. Am. Psychol. 68, 814–822. doi: 10.1037/a0033584

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Frewen, P. A., Evans, E. M., Maraj, N., Dozois, D. J. A., and Partridge, K. (2008). Letting go: mindfulness and negative automatic thinking. Cognit. Ther. Res. 32, 758–774. doi: 10.1007/s10608-007-9142-1

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Frost, K. H., and Strauss, G. P. (2016). A review of anticipatory pleasure in schizophrenia. Curr. Behav. Neurosci. Rep. 3, 232–247. doi: 10.1007/s40473-016-0082-5

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Fulford, D., Campellone, T., and Gard, D. E. (2018). Social motivation in schizophrenia: how research on basic reward processes informs and limits our understanding. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 63, 12–24. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2018.05.007

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gable, S. L. (2006). Approach and avoidance social motives and goals. J. Pers. 74, 175–222. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00373.x

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gable, S. L. (2015). Balancing rewards and cost in relationships. Adv. Motiv. Sci. 2, 1–31. doi: 10.1016/bs.adms.2015.06.001

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gable, S. L., and Gosnell, C. L. (2013). Approach and avoidance behavior in interpersonal relationships. Emot. Rev. 5, 269–274. doi: 10.1177/1754073913477513

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gable, S. L., and Poore, J. (2008). Which thoughts count? Algorithms for evaluating satisfaction in relationships. Psychol. Sci. 19, 1030–1036. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02195.x

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Galderisi, S., Mucci, A., Buchanan, R. W., and Arango, C. (2018). Negative symptoms of schizophrenia: new developments and unanswered research questions. Lancet Psychiatry 5, 664–677. doi: 10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30050-6

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gallagher, M. W., Lopez, S. J., and Pressman, S. D. (2013). Optimism is universal: exploring the presence and benefits of optimism in a representative sample of the world. J. Pers. 81, 429–440. doi: 10.1111/jopy.12026

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gard, D. E., Kring, A. M., Gard, M. G., Horan, W. P., and Green, M. F. (2007). Anhedonia in schizophrenia: distinctions between anticipatory and consummatory pleasure. Schizophr. Res. 93, 253–260. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2007.03.008

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gard, D. E., Sanchez, A. H., Cooper, K., Fisher, M., Garrett, C., and Vinogradov, S. (2014). Do people with schizophrenia have difficulty anticipating pleasure, engaging in effortful behavior, or both? J. Abnorm. Psychol. 123, 771–782. doi: 10.1037/abn0000005

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Garrett, N., and Sharot, T. (2017). Optimistic update bias holds firm: three tests of robustness following Shah, et al. Conscious. Cogn. 50, 12–22. doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2016.10.013

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Garrett, N., Sharot, T., Faulkner, P., Korn, C. W., Roiser, J. P., and Dolan, R. J. (2014). Losing the rose tinted glasses: neural substrates of unbiased belief updating in depression. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 8:639. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00639

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Geaney, J. T., Treadway, M. T., and Smillie, L. D. (2015). Trait anticipatory pleasure predicts effort expenditure for reward. PLoS One 10:e0131357. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0131357

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gilbert, D. T., and Wilson, T. D. (2007). Prospection: experiencing the future. Science 317, 1351–1354. doi: 10.1126/science.1144161

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Glenthøj, L. B., Kristensen, T. D., Wenneberg, C., Hjorthøj, C., and Nordentoft, M. (2020). Experiential negative symptoms are more predictive of real-life functional outcome than expressive negative symptoms in clinical high-risk states. Schizophr. Res. 218, 151–156. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2020.01.012

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Glimcher, P. W. (2011). Understanding dopamine and reinforcement learning: the dopamine reward prediction error hypothesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 8, 15647–15654. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1014269108

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gold, J. M., Waltz, J. A., and Frank, M. J. (2015). Effort cost computation in schizophrenia: a commentary on the recent literature. Biol. Psychiatry 78, 747–753. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.05.005

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gold, J. M., Waltz, J. A., Matveeva, T. M., Kasanova, Z., Strauss, G. P., Herbener, E. S., et al. (2012). Negative symptoms and the failure to represent the expected reward value of actions: behavioral and computational modeling evidence. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 69, 129–138. doi: 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.1269

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gold, J. M., Waltz, J. A., Prentice, K. J., Morris, S. E., and Heerey, E. A. (2008). Reward processing in schizophrenia: a deficit in the representation of value. Schizophr. Bull. 34, 835–847. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbn068

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Goldstone, E., Farhall, J., and Ong, B. (2011). Life hassles, experiential avoidance and distressing delusional experiences. Behav. Res. Ther. 49, 260–266. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2011.02.002

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Granholm, E., Holden, J., and Worley, M. (2018). Improvement in negative symptoms and functioning in cognitive-behavioral social skills training for schizophrenia: mediation by defeatist performance attitudes and asocial beliefs. Schizophr. Bull. 44, 653–661. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbx099

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Granholm, E., Ruiz, I., Gallegos-Rodriguez, Y., Holden, J., and Link, P. C. (2016). Pupillary responses as a biomarker of diminished effort associated with defeatist attitudes and negative symptoms in schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry 80, 581–588. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.08.037

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Grant, P. M., and Beck, A. T. (2009). Defeatist beliefs as a mediator of cognitive impairment, negative symptoms, and functioning in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 35, 798–806. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbn008

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Grant, P. M., and Beck, A. T. (2010). Asocial beliefs as predictors of asocial behavior in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res. 177, 65–70. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2010.01.005

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gratz, K. L., and Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: development. factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. J. Psychopathol. Behav. Assess. 26, 41–54. doi: 10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Green, M. F., Hellemann, G., Horan, W. P., Lee, J., and Wynn, J. K. (2012). From perception to functional outcome in schizophrenia: modeling the role of ability and motivation. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 69, 1216–1224. doi: 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2012.652

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gromann, P. M., Heslenfeld, D. J., Fett, A. K., Joyce, D. W., Shergill, S. S., and Krabbendam, L. (2013). Trust versus paranoia: abnormal response to social reward in psychotic illness. Brain 136, 1968–1975. doi: 10.1093/brain/awt076

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: an integrative review. Rev. Gen. Psychol. 2, 271–299. doi: 10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gross, J. J. (2001). Emotion regulation in adulthood: timing is everything. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 10, 214–219. doi: 10.1111/1467-8721.00152

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: current status and future prospects. Psychol. Inq. 26, 1–26. doi: 10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gross, J. J., and John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: implications for affect. Relationships, and well-being. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 85, 348–362. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Halari, R., Premkumar, P., Farquharson, L., Fannon, D., Kuipers, E., and Kumari, V. (2009). Rumination and negative symptoms in schizophrenia. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 197, 703–706. doi: 10.1097/NMD.0b013e3181b3af20

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hallford, D. J., and Sharma, M. K. (2019). Anticipatory pleasure for future experiences in schizophrenia spectrum disorders and major depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br. J. Clin. Psychol. 58, 357–383. doi: 10.1111/bjc.12218

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hallford, D. J., Austin, D. W., Takano, K., and Raes, F. (2018). Psychopathology and episodic future thinking: a systematic review and meta-analysis of specificity and episodic detail. Behav. Res. Ther. 102, 42–51. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2018.01.003

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hanley, A. W., Mehling, W. E., and Garland, E. L. (2017). Holding the body in mind: interoceptive awareness, dispositional mindfulness and psychological well-being. J. Psychosom. Res. 99, 13–20. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2017.05.014

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hanley, A. W., Palejwala, M. H., Hanley, R. T., Canto, A. I., and Garland, E. L. (2015). A failure in mind: dispositional mindfulness and positive reappraisal as predictors of academic self-efficacy following failure. Pers. Individ. Dif. 86, 332–337. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2015.06.033

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hansen, C. F., Torgalsbøen, A. K., Melle, I., and Bell, M. D. (2009). Passive/apathetic social withdrawal and active social avoidance in schizophrenia: difference in underlying psychological processes. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 197, 274–277. doi: 10.1097/NMD.0b013e31819dbd36

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hanson, J. L., van den Bos, W., Roeber, B. J., Rudolph, K. D., Davidson, R. J., and Pollak, S. D. (2017). Early adversity and learning: implications for typical and atypical behavioral development. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry Allied Discip. 58, 770–778. doi: 10.1111/jcpp.12694

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hartley, S., Haddock, G., Vasconcelos, E., Sa, D., Emsley, R., and Barrowclough, C. (2014). An experience sampling study of worry and rumination in psychosis. Psychol. Med. 44, 1605–1614. doi: 10.1017/S0033291713002080

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hartmann-Riemer, M. N., Aschenbrenner, S., Bossert, M., Westermann, C., Seifritz, E., Tobler, P. N., et al. (2017). Deficits in reinforcement learning but no link to apathy in patients with schizophrenia. Sci. Rep. 7:40352. doi: 10.1038/srep40352

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K., Wilson, K. G., Bissett, R. T., Pistorello, J., Toarmino, D., et al. (2004). Measuring experiential avoidance: a preliminary test of a working model. Psychol. Rec. 54, 553–578. doi: 10.1007/BF03395492

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Heppner, W. L., Spears, C. A., Correa-Fernández, V., Castro, Y., Li, Y., Guo, B., et al. (2016). Dispositional mindfulness predicts enhanced smoking cessation and smoking lapse recovery. Ann. Behav. Med. 50, 337–347. doi: 10.1007/s12160-015-9759-3

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Heppner, W. L., Spears, C. A., Vidrine, J. I., and Wetter, D. W. (2015). “Mindfulness and Emotion Regulation,” in Handbook of Mindfulness and Self-Regulation, eds O. Brian, R. Michael, and M. Brian (Berlin: Springer), 107–137.

Google Scholar

Herbener, E. S. (2009). Impairment in long-term retention of preference conditioning in schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry 65, 1086–1090. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.01.020

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Herzberg, M. P., and Gunnar, M. R. (2020). Early life stress and brain function: activity and connectivity associated with processing emotion and reward. Neuroimage 209:116493. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116493

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hochheiser, J., Lundin, N. B., and Lysaker, P. H. (2020). The independent relationships of metacognition. mindfulness, and cognitive insight to self-compassion in schizophrenia. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 208:1065. doi: 10.1097/NMD.0000000000001065

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Holmes, E. A., Lang, T. J., Moulds, M. L., and Steele, A. M. (2008). Prospective and positive mental imagery deficits in dysphoria. Behav. Res. Ther. 46, 976–981. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2008.04.009

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Horan, W. P., Green, M. F., Kring, A. M., and Nuechterlein, K. H. (2006). Does anhedonia in schizophrenia reflect faulty memory for subjectively experienced emotions? J. Abnorm. Psychol. 115, 496–508. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.115.3.496

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Horan, W. P., Rassovsky, Y., Kern, R. S., Lee, J., Wynn, J. K., and Green, M. F. (2010). Further support for the role of dysfunctional attitudes in models of real-world functioning in schizophrenia. J. Psychiatr. Res. 44, 499–505. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2009.11.001

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Huang, J., Yang, X. H., Lan, Y., Zhu, C. Y., Liu, X. Q., Wang, Y. F., et al. (2016). Neural substrates of the impaired effort expenditure decision making in schizophrenia. Neuropsychology 30, 685–696. doi: 10.1037/neu0000284

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ingledew, D. K., Wray, J. L., Markland, D., and Hardy, L. (2005). Work-related goal perceptions and affective well-being. J. Health Psychol. 10, 101–122. doi: 10.1177/1359105305048558

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ito, T. A., and Cacioppo, J. T. (2005). Variations on a human universal: individual differences in positivity offset and negativity bias. Cogn. Emot. 19, 1–26. doi: 10.1080/02699930441000120

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Jakubiak, B. K., and Feeney, B. C. (2016). Daily goal progress is facilitated by spousal support and promotes psychological, physical, and relational well-being throughout adulthood. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 111, 317–340. doi: 10.1037/pspi0000062

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Jansen, J. E., Gleeson, J., Bendall, S., Rice, S., and Alvarez-Jimenez, M. (2020). Acceptance- and mindfulness-based interventions for persons with psychosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophr. Res. 215, 25–37. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2019.11.016

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Jaya, E. S., Ascone, L., and Lincoln, T. M. (2017). Social adversity and psychosis: the mediating role of cognitive vulnerability. Schizophr. Bull. 43, 557–565. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbw104

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ji, J. L., Holmes, E. A., and Blackwell, S. E. (2017). Seeing light at the end of the tunnel: positive prospective mental imagery and optimism in depression. Psychiatry Res. 247, 155–162. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2016.11.025

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Jin, Y., Zhang, M., Wang, Y., and An, J. (2020). The relationship between trait mindfulness, loneliness, regulatory emotional self-efficacy, and subjective well-being. Pers. Individ. Dif. 154:109650. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2019.109650

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kabat-Zin, J. (1990). Full Catastrophe Living: Usingthe Wisdom of Your Body and Mind to Face Stress, Pain and Illness. London: Piatkus.

Google Scholar

Kasanova, Z., Oorschot, M., and Myin-Germeys, I. (2018). Social anhedonia and asociality in psychosis revisited. An experience sampling study. Psychiatry Res. 270, 375–381. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2018.09.057

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kelley, N. J., Glazer, J. E., Pornpattananangkul, N., and Nusslock, R. (2019). Reappraisal and suppression emotion-regulation tendencies differentially predict reward-responsivity and psychological well-being. Biol. Psychol. 140, 35–47. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2018.11.005

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kéri, S., Kiss, I., and Kelemen, O. (2009). Sharing secrets: oxytocin and trust in schizophrenia. Soc. Neurosci. 4, 287–293. doi: 10.1080/17470910802319710

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Khoury, B., Lecomte, T., Gaudiano, B. A., and Paquin, K. (2013). Mindfulness interventions for psychosis: a meta-analysis. Schizophr. Res. 150, 176–184. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2013.07.055

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kiken, L. G., Garland, E. L., Bluth, K., Palsson, O. S., and Gaylord, S. A. (2015). From a state to a trait: trajectories of state mindfulness in meditation during intervention predict changes in trait mindfulness. Pers. Individ. Dif. 81, 41–46. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2014.12.044

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kiken, L. G., Lundberg, K. B., and Fredrickson, B. L. (2017). Being present and enjoying it: dispositional mindfulness and savoring the moment are distinct. Interactive predictors of positive emotions and psychological health. Mindfulness (N. Y.) 8, 1280–1290. doi: 10.1007/s12671-017-0704-3

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kingdon, D. G., and Turkington, D. (2005). Cognitive Therapy Of Schizophrenia. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Google Scholar

Kircanski, K., Thompson, R. J., Sorenson, J., Sherdell, L., and Gotlib, I. H. (2018). The everyday dynamics of rumination and worry: precipitant events and affective consequences. Cogn. Emot. 32, 1424–1436. doi: 10.1080/02699931.2017.1278679

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kirkpatrick, B., Fenton, W. S., Carpenter, W. T., and Marder, S. R. (2006). The NIMH-MATRICS consensus statement on negative symptoms. Schizophr. Bull. 32, 296–303. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbj053

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kirkpatrick, B., Strauss, G. P., Nguyen, L., Fischer, B. A., Daniel, D. G., Cienfuegos, A., et al. (2011). The brief negative symptom scale: psychometric properties. Schizophr. Bull. 37, 300–305. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbq059

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Korn, C. W., Sharot, T., Walter, H., Heekeren, H. R., and Dolan, R. J. (2014). Depression is related to an absence of optimistically biased belief updating about future life events. Psychol. Med. 44, 579–592. doi: 10.1017/S0033291713001074

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kring, A. M., and Barch, D. M. (2014). The motivation and pleasure dimension of negative symptoms: neural substrates and behavioral outputs. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 24, 725–736. doi: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.06.007

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kring, A. M., and Elis, O. (2013). Emotion deficits in people with schizophrenia. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 9, 409–433. doi: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185538

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kring, A. M., and Moran, E. K. (2008). Emotional response deficits in schizophrenia: insights from affective science. Schizophr. Bull. 34, 819–834. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbn071

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kube, T., Siebers, V. H. A., Herzog, P., Glombiewski, J. A., Doering, B. K., and Rief, W. (2018). Integrating situation-specific dysfunctional expectations and dispositional optimism into the cognitive model of depression – A path-analytic approach. J. Affect. Disord. 229, 199–205. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2017.12.082

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kurtz, M. M., Olfson, R. H., and Rose, J. (2013). Self-efficacy and functional status in schizophrenia: relationship to insight, cognition and negative symptoms. Schizophr. Res. 145, 69–74. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2012.12.030

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Larsen, J. T., McGraw, A. P., and Cacioppo, J. T. (2001). Can people feel happy and sad at the same time? J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 81:684. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.81.4.684

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Laurenceau, J. P., Kleinman, B. M., Kaczynski, K. J., and Carver, C. S. (2010). Assessment of relationship-specific incentive and threat sensitivities: predicting satisfaction and affect in adult intimate relationships. Psychol. Assess. 22, 407–419. doi: 10.1037/a0019231

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Lawlor, C., Hepworth, C., Smallwood, J., Carter, B., and Jolley, S. (2020). Self-reported emotion regulation difficulties in people with psychosis compared with non-clinical controls: a systematic literature review. Clin. Psychol. Psychother. 27, 107–135. doi: 10.1002/cpp.2408

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Leavitt, V. M., and Goldberg, T. E. (2009). Episodic memory in schizophrenia. Neuropsychol. Rev. 19, 312–323. doi: 10.1007/s11065-009-9107-0

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Lee, J., Jimenez, A. M., Reavis, E. A., Horan, W. P., Wynn, J. K., and Green, M. F. (2019). Reduced neural sensitivity to social vs nonsocial reward in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 45, 620–628. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sby109

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Lee, K. H., and Yu, C. H. (2021). The moderating effect of mindfulness on self-defeatist beliefs and negative symptoms in a population of chronic schizophrenia patients in Taiwan. Curr. Psychol. 1–6. doi: 10.1017/s1352465821000461

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Lefebvre, G., Lebreton, M., Meyniel, F., Bourgeois-Gironde, S., and Palminteri, S. (2017). Behavioural and neural characterization of optimistic reinforcement learning. Nat. Hum. Behav. 1:0067. doi: 10.1038/s41562-017-0067

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Li, Y. I., Starr, L. R., and Hershenberg, R. (2017). Responses to positive affect in daily life: positive rumination and dampening moderate the association between daily events and depressive symptoms. J. Psychopathol. Behav. Assess. 39, 412–425. doi: 10.1007/s10862-017-9593-y

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Lincoln, T. M., Hartmann, M., Köther, U., and Moritz, S. (2015). Do people with psychosis have specific difficulties regulating emotions? Clin. Psychol. Psychother. 22, 637–646. doi: 10.1002/cpp.1923

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Llerena, K., Reddy, L. F., and Kern, R. S. (2018). The role of experiential and expressive negative symptoms on job obtainment and work outcome in individuals with schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 192, 148–153. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2017.06.001

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Llerena, K., Strauss, G. P., and Cohen, A. S. (2012). Looking at the other side of the coin: a meta-analysis of self-reported emotional arousal in people with schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 142, 65–70. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2012.09.005

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

López-Del-Hoyo, Y., Panzano, M. G., Lahera, G., Herrera-Mercadal, P., Navarro-Gil, M., Campos, D., et al. (2019). Differences between individuals with schizophrenia or obsessive-compulsive disorder and healthy controls in social cognition and mindfulness skills: a controlled study. PLoS One 14:e0225608. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0225608

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ludwig, L., Werner, D., and Lincoln, T. M. (2019). The relevance of cognitive emotion regulation to psychotic symptoms – A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 72:101746. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2019.101746

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Luszczynska, A., Benight, C. C., and Cieslak, R. (2009). Self-efficacy and health-related outcomes of collective trauma: a systematic review. Eur. Psychol. 14, 51–62.

Google Scholar

Luther, L., Salyers, M. P., Firmin, R. L., Marggraf, M. P., Davis, B., and Minor, K. S. (2016). Additional support for the cognitive model of schizophrenia: evidence of elevated defeatist beliefs in schizotypy. Compr. Psychiatry 68, 40–47. doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2016.03.006

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Lyvers, M., Makin, C., Toms, E., Thorberg, F. A., and Samios, C. (2014). Trait mindfulness in relation to emotional self-regulation and executive function. Mindfulness (N. Y.) 5, 619–625. doi: 10.1007/s12671-013-0213-y

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ma, T. W., Bryant, F. B., and Hou, W. K. (2020). Associations of trait positive emotion regulation with everyday emotions: an experience sampling approach. Int. J. Psychol. 55, 871–881. doi: 10.1002/ijop.12650

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Marks, J., and Baines, S. (2017). Optimistic belief updating despite inclusion of positive events. Learn Motiv. 58, 88–101. doi: 10.1016/j.lmot.2017.05.001

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Martins, M. J., Carreiras, D., Bajouco, M., Carvalho, C. B., Guiomar, R., Pereira, A. T., et al. (2017). “Mindfulness and negative symptoms of psychosis: A review and discussion on an integrative theoretical model,” in Mindfulness: Past, Present And Future Perspectives, eds B. Muireadhach and G. Colin (Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers), 75–126.

Google Scholar

Matheson, S. L., Shepherd, A. M., Pinchbeck, R. M., Laurens, K. R., and Carr, V. J. (2013). Childhood adversity in schizophrenia: a systematic meta-analysis. Psychol. Med. 43, 225–238. doi: 10.1017/S0033291712000785

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

McCluskey, D. L., Haliwa, I., Wilson, J. M., Keeley, J. W., and Shook, N. J. (2020). Experiential avoidance mediates the relation between mindfulness and anxiety. Curr. Psychol. 2020, 1–11. doi: 10.1007/s12144-020-00929-4

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

McGovern, J. E., Reddy, L. F., Reavis, E. A., and Green, M. F. (2020). Pupillary change on a cognitive effort task in schizophrenia: associations with cognition and motivation. Int. J. Psychophysiol. 155, 1–7. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2020.05.003

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

McLaughlin, K. A., Borkovec, T. D., and Sibrava, N. J. (2007). The effects of worry and rumination on affect states and cognitive activity. Behav. Ther. 38, 23–38. doi: 10.1016/j.beth.2006.03.003

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

McRae, K., Jacobs, S. E., Ray, R. D., John, O. P., and Gross, J. J. (2012). Individual differences in reappraisal ability: links to reappraisal frequency, well-being, and cognitive control. J. Res. Pers. 46, 2–7. doi: 10.1016/j.jrp.2011.10.003

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Milev, P., Ho, B. C., Arndt, S., and Andreasen, N. C. (2005). Predictive values of neurocognition and negative symptoms on functional outcome in schizophrenia: a longitudinal first-episode study with 7-year follow-up. Am. J. Psychiatry 162, 495–506. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.162.3.495

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Moran, E. K., Culbreth, A. J., and Barch, D. M. (2017). Ecological momentary assessment of negative symptoms in schizophrenia: relationships to effort-based decision making and reinforcement learning. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 126, 96–105. doi: 10.1037/abn0000240

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Moran, E. K., Culbreth, A. J., and Barch, D. M. (2018). Emotion regulation predicts everyday emotion experience and social function in schizophrenia. Clin. Psychol. Sci. 6, 271–279. doi: 10.1177/2167702617738827

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Moran, E. K., Culbreth, A. J., Kandala, S., and Barch, D. M. (2019). From neuroimaging to daily functioning: a multimethod analysis of reward anticipation in people with schizophrenia. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 128, 723–734. doi: 10.1037/abn0000461

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Morina, N., Deeprose, C., Pusowski, C., Schmid, M., and Holmes, E. A. (2011). Prospective mental imagery in patients with major depressive disorder or anxiety disorders. J. Anxiety Disord. 25, 1032–1037. doi: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2011.06.012

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Mote, J., and Fulford, D. (2020). Ecological momentary assessment of everyday social experiences of people with schizophrenia: a systematic review. Schizophr. Res. 216, 56–68. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2019.10.021

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Najas-Garcia, A., Carmona, V. R., and Gómez-Benito, J. (2018). Trends in the study of motivation in schizophrenia: a bibliometric analysis of six decades of research (1956-2017). Front. Psychol. 9:63. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00063

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Nes, L. S., Segerstrom, S. C., and Sephton, S. E. (2005). Engagement and arousal: optimism’s effects during a brief stressor. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 31, 111–120. doi: 10.1177/0146167204271319

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Nikitin, J., and Freund, A. M. (2018). Feeling loved and integrated or lonely and rejected in everyday life: the role of age and social motivation. Dev. Psychol. 54, 1186–1198. doi: 10.1037/dev0000502

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Nikitin, J., and Freund, A. M. (2019). Individual differences in habitual social goals and daily well-being: the role of age and relationship closeness. Eur. J. Pers. 33, 337–358. doi: 10.1002/per.2190

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Nikitin, J., Gong, X., Schoch, S., and Freund, A. M. (2019). Social motives, attributions and expectations as predictors of the decision to participate in a speed-dating event. Motiv. Emot. 43, 610–624. doi: 10.1007/s11031-019-09762-0

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Niv, Y., and Schoenbaum, G. (2008). Dialogues on prediction errors. Trends Cogn. Sci. 12, 265–272. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2008.03.006

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1991). Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 100, 569–582. doi: 10.1037/0021-843x.100.4.569

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., and Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 3, 400–424. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Olino, T. M., Case, J. A. C., Versella, M. V., Cerra, C. E., and Genaro, B. G. (2021). Associations between individual differences in approach motivation and effort-based task performance. Pers. Individ. Dif. 169:109903. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2020.109903

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Oorschot, M., Lataster, T., Thewissen, V., Lardinois, M., Wichers, M., Van Os, J., et al. (2013). Emotional experience in negative symptoms of schizophrenia-no evidence for a generalized hedonic deficit. Schizophr. Bull. 39, 217–225. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbr137

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Painter, J. M., and Kring, A. M. (2016). Toward an understanding of anticipatory pleasure deficits in schizophrenia: memory, prospection, and emotion experience. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 125, 442–452. doi: 10.1037/abn0000151

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Pan, D., Hoid, D., Wang, Z., Wang, Y., and Li, X. (2020). Using questionnaires and task-related EEG signals to reveal hindered reappraisal and biased suppression in individuals with high schizotypal traits. Sci. Rep. 10:5529. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-62283-6

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Park, S. G., Bennett, M. E., Couture, S. M., and Blanchard, J. J. (2013). Internalized stigma in schizophrenia: relations with dysfunctional attitudes, symptoms, and quality of life. Psychiatry Res. 205, 43–47. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2012.08.040

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Pillny, M., and Lincoln, T. M. (2020). The demotivating effect of social exclusion: an experimental test of a psychosocial model on the development of negative symptoms in psychosis. Schizophr. Res. 215, 330–336. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2019.10.005

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Pillny, M., Krkovic, K., and Lincoln, T. M. (2018). Development of the demotivating beliefs inventory and test of the cognitive triad of amotivation. Cogn. Ther. Res. 42, 867–877. doi: 10.1007/s10608-018-9940-7

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Pillny, M., Schlier, B., and Lincoln, T. M. (2020). I just don’t look forward to anything. How anticipatory pleasure and negative beliefs contribute to goal-directed activity in patients with negative symptoms of psychosis. Schizophr. Res. 222, 429–436. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2020.03.059

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Plasencia, M. L., Taylor, C. T., and Alden, L. E. (2016). Unmasking One’s true self facilitates positive relational outcomes: authenticity promotes social approach processes in social anxiety disorder. Clin. Psychol. Sci. 4, 1002–1014. doi: 10.1177/2167702615622204

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Pratt, S. I., Mueser, K. T., Smith, T. E., and Lu, W. (2005). Self-efficacy and psychosocial functioning in schizophrenia: a mediational analysis. Schizophr. Res. 78, 187–197. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2005.02.014

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Prentice, K. J., Gold, J. M., and Carpenter, W. T. (2005). Optimistic bias in the perception of personal risk: patterns in schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry 162, 507–512. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.162.3.507

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Quaglia, J. T., Braun, S. E., Freeman, S. P., McDaniel, M. A., and Brown, K. W. (2016). Meta-Analytic evidence for effects of mindfulness training on dimensions of self-reported dispositional mindfulness. Psychol. Assess. 28, 803–818. doi: 10.1037/pas0000268

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Quinlan, T., Roesch, S., and Granholm, E. L. (2014). The role of dysfunctional attitudes in models of negative symptoms and functioning in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 157, 182–189. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2014.05.025

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Rabinowitz, J., Levine, S. Z., Garibaldi, G., Bugarski-Kirola, D., Berardo, C. G., and Kapur, S. (2012). Negative symptoms have greater impact on functioning than positive symptoms in schizophrenia: analysis of CATIE data. Schizophr. Res. 137, 147–150. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2012.01.015

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Radke, S., Pfersmann, V., and Derntl, B. (2015). The impact of emotional faces on social motivation in schizophrenia. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 265, 613–622. doi: 10.1007/s00406-015-0589-x

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Rado, S. (1956). Psychoanalysis of Behavior; Collected Papers. Washington, DC: APA.

Google Scholar

Raffard, S., Esposito, F., Boulenger, J. P., and Van der Linden, M. (2013). Impaired ability to imagine future pleasant events is associated with apathy in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res. 209, 393–400. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2013.04.016

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Rau, H. K., and Williams, P. G. (2016). Dispositional mindfulness: a critical review of construct validation research. Pers. Individ. Dif. 93, 32–43. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2015.09.035

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Rector, N. A., Beck, A. T., and Stolar, N. (2005). The negative symptoms of schizophrenia: a cognitive perspective. Can. J. Psychiatry 50, 247–257. doi: 10.1177/070674370505000503

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Reddy, F. L., Green, M. F., Rizzo, S., Sugar, C. A., Blanchard, J. J., Gur, R. E., et al. (2014). Behavioral approach and avoidance in schizophrenia: an evaluation of motivational profiles. Schizophr. Res. 159, 164–170. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2014.07.047

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Reddy, F. L., Horan, W. P., Barch, D. M., Buchanan, R. W., Gold, J. M., Marder, S. R., et al. (2018). Understanding the association between negative symptoms and performance on effort-based decision-making tasks: the importance of defeatist performance beliefs. Schizophr. Bull. 44, 1217–1226. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbx156

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Robinson, M. S., and Alloy, L. B. (2003). Negative cognitive styles and stress-reactive rumination interact to predict depression: a prospective study. Cogn. Ther. Res. 27, 275–291. doi: 10.1023/A:1023914416469

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Rossler, W. (2016). A millennia-long history of social exclusion and prejudices. Eur. Mol. Biol. Organ. 17, 1250–1253. doi: 10.15252/embr.201643041

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Russell, J. A., and Mehrabian, A. (1978). Approach-avoidance and affiliation as functions of the emotion-eliciting quality of an environment. Environ. Behav. 10, 355–387. doi: 10.1177/0013916578103005

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ryan, R. M., and Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: classic definitions and new directions. Contemp. Educ. Psychol. 25, 54–67. doi: 10.1006/ceps.1999.1020

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Rygula, R., Golebiowska, J., Kregiel, J., Kubik, J., and Popik, P. (2015). Effects of optimism on motivation in rats. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 9:32. doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00032

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Sala, M., Rochefort, C., Lui, P. P., and Baldwin, A. S. (2020). Trait mindfulness and health behaviours: a meta-analysis. Health Psychol. Rev. 14, 345–393. doi: 10.1080/17437199.2019.1650290

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Savill, M., Orfanos, S., Reininghaus, U., Wykes, T., Bentall, R., and Priebe, S. (2016). The relationship between experiential deficits of negative symptoms and subjective quality of life in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 176, 387–391. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2016.06.017

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Schacter, D. L., and Addis, D. R. (2007). The cognitive neuroscience of constructive memory: remembering the past and imagining the future. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 362, 773–786. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2007.2087

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Schlagenhauf, F., Huys, Q. J. M., Deserno, L., Rapp, M. A., Beck, A., Heinze, H. J., et al. (2014). Striatal dysfunction during reversal learning in unmedicated schizophrenia patients. Neuroimage 89, 171–180. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.11.034

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Schoch, S., Nikitin, J., and Freund, A. M. (2015). Why do(n’t) you like me? The role of social approach and avoidance motives in attributions following social acceptance and rejection. Motiv. Emot. 39, 680–692. doi: 10.1007/s11031-015-9482-1

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Schwarzer, R., and Warner, L. M. (2013). “Perceived self-efficacy and its relationship to resilience,” in Resilience in Children, Adolescents, and Adults, (New York, NY: SpringLink), 139–150.

Google Scholar

Seo, M. A., and Lim, Y. J. (2019). Optimism and life satisfaction in persons with schizophrenia living in the community. Int. J. Soc. Psychiatry 65, 615–620. doi: 10.1177/0020764019868256

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Shapiro, S. L., Carlson, L. E., Astin, J. A., and Freedman, B. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness. J. Clin. Psychol. 62, 373–386. doi: 10.1002/jclp.20237

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Sharot, T. (2011). The optimism bias. Curr. Biol. 21, R941–R945. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2011.10.030

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Sharot, T., Korn, C. W., and Dolan, R. J. (2011). How unrealistic optimism is maintained in the face of reality. Nat. Neurosci. 14, 1475–1479. doi: 10.1038/nn.2949

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Stankevicius, A., Huys, Q. J. M., Kalra, A., and Seriès, P. (2014). Optimism as a prior belief about the probability of future reward. PLoS Comput. Biol. 10:e1003605. doi: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003605

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Stevenson, J. C., Millings, A., and Emerson, L. M. (2019). Psychological well-being and coping: the predictive value of adult attachment, dispositional mindfulness, and emotion regulation. Mindfulness (N. Y.) 10, 256–271. doi: 10.1007/s12671-018-0970-8

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Strachman, A., and Gable, S. L. (2006). What you want (and do not want) affects what you see (and do not see): avoidance social goals and social events. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 32, 1446–1458. doi: 10.1177/0146167206291007

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Strauss, G. P., and Gold, J. M. (2012). A new perspective on anhedonia in schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry 169, 364–373. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11030447

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Strauss, G. P., Esfahlani, F. Z., Granholm, E., Holden, J., Visser, K. F., Bartolomeo, L. A., et al. (2020). Mathematically modeling anhedonia in schizophrenia: a stochastic dynamical systems approach. Schizophr. Bull. 7, 216–233. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbaa014

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Strauss, G. P., Frank, M. J., Waltz, J. A., Kasanova, Z., Herbener, E. S., and Gold, J. M. (2011). Deficits in positive reinforcement learning and uncertainty-driven exploration are associated with distinct aspects of negative symptoms in schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry 69, 424–431. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.10.015

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Strauss, G. P., Hong, L. E., Gold, J. M., Buchanan, R. W., McMahon, R. P., Keller, W. R., et al. (2012a). Factor structure of the brief negative symptom scale. Schizophr. Res. 142, 96–98. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2012.09.007

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Strauss, G. P., Sandt, A. R., Catalano, L. T., and Allen, D. N. (2012b). Negative symptoms and depression predict lower psychological well-being in individuals with schizophrenia. Compr. Psychiatry 53, 1137–1144. doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2012.05.009

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Strauss, G. P., Visser, K. H., Lee, B. G., and Gold, J. M. (2017). The positivity offset theory of anhedonia in schizophrenia. Clin. Psychol. Sci. 5, 226–238. doi: 10.1177/2167702616674989

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Strauss, G. P., Waltz, J. A., and Gold, J. M. (2014). A review of reward processing and motivational impairment in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 40, S107–S116. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbt197

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Strauss, G. P., Zamani Esfahlani, F., Visser, K. F., Dickinson, E. K., Gruber, J., and Sayama, H. (2019). Mathematically modeling emotion regulation abnormalities during psychotic experiences in schizophrenia. Clin. Psychol. Sci. 7, 216–233. doi: 10.1177/2167702618810233

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Strauss, G., Whearty, K. M., Frost, K. H., and Carpenter, W. T. (2016). “An affective neuroscience model of impaired approach motivation in schizophrenia,” in The Neuropsychopathology of Schizophrenia, eds M. Li and W. Spaulding (New York, NY: Routledge), 159–204. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-30596-7_6

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Strunk, D. R., and Adler, A. D. (2009). Cognitive biases in three prediction tasks: a test of the cognitive model of depression. Behav. Res. Ther. 47, 34–40. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2008.10.008

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Strunk, D. R., Lopez, H., and DeRubeis, R. J. (2006). Depressive symptoms are associated with unrealistic negative predictions of future life events. Behav. Res. Ther. 44, 861–882. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2005.07.001

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Sutton, R. S., and Barto, A. G. (2018). Reinforcement Learning: An Introduction. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Google Scholar

Tabak, N. T., Horan, W. P., and Green, M. F. (2015). Mindfulness in schizophrenia: associations with self-reported motivation, emotion regulation, dysfunctional attitudes, and negative symptoms. Schizophr. Res. 168, 537–542. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2015.07.030

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Takano, K., Van Grieken, J., and Raes, F. (2019). Difficulty in updating positive beliefs about negative cognition is associated with increased depressed mood. J. Behav. Ther. Exp. Psychiatry 64, 22–30. doi: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2019.02.001

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Tang, Y. Y., Hölzel, B. K., and Posner, M. I. (2015). The neuroscience of mindfulness meditation. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 16, 213–225. doi: 10.1038/nrn3916

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Teper, R., and Inzlicht, M. (2014). Mindful acceptance dampens neuroaffective reactions to external and rewarding performance feedback. Emotion 14, 105–114. doi: 10.1037/a0034296

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Thomas, E. C., Luther, L., Zullo, L., Beck, A. T., and Grant, P. M. (2017). From neurocognition to community participation in serious mental illness: the intermediary role of dysfunctional attitudes and motivation. Psychol. Med. 47, 822–836. doi: 10.1017/S0033291716003019

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Treadway, M. T., Buckholtz, J. W., Schwartzman, A. N., Lambert, W. E., and Zald, D. H. (2009). Worth the “EEfRT”? The effort expenditure for rewards task as an objective measure of motivation and anhedonia. PLoS One 4:e6598. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0006598

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Treanor, M. (2011). The potential impact of mindfulness on exposure and extinction learning in anxiety disorders. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 31, 617–625. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2011.02.003

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Trémeau, F., Goldman, J., Antonius, D., and Javitt, D. C. (2013). Inpatients with schizophrenia report impaired situational motivation but intact global and social motivation. Psychiatry Res. 210, 43–49. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2013.05.031

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Trotta, A., Di Forti, M., Mondelli, V., Dazzan, P., Pariante, C., David, A., et al. (2013). Prevalence of bullying victimisation amongst first-episode psychosis patients and unaffected controls. Schizophr. Res. 150, 169–175. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2013.07.001

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Troy, A. S., Wilhelm, F. H., Shallcross, A. J., and Mauss, I. B. (2010). Seeing the silver lining: cognitive reappraisal ability moderates the relationship between stress and depressive symptoms. Emotion 10, 783–795. doi: 10.1037/a0020262

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Üçok, A., Direk, N., Kaya, H., Çağlar, N., Çıkrıkçılı, U., Noyan, H., et al. (2021). Relationship of negative symptom severity with cognitive symptoms and functioning in subjects at ultra-high risk for psychosis. Early Interv. Psychiatry 15, 966–974. doi: 10.1111/eip.13042

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

van Randenborgh, A., Hüffmeier, J., LeMoult, J., and Joormann, J. (2010). Letting go of unmet goals: does self-focused rumination impair goal disengagement? Motiv. Emot. 34, 325–332. doi: 10.1007/s11031-010-9190-9

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ventura, J., Subotnik, K. L., Ered, A., Gretchen-Doorly, D., Hellemann, G. S., Vaskinn, A., et al. (2014). The relationship of attitudinal beliefs to negative symptoms, neurocognition, and daily functioning in recent-onset schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 40, 1308–1318. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbu002

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Visser, K. F., Chapman, H. C., Ruiz, I., Raugh, I. M., and Strauss, G. P. (2020). A meta-analysis of self-reported anticipatory and consummatory pleasure in the schizophrenia-spectrum. J. Psychiatr. Res. 121, 68–81. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2019.11.007

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Visser, K. F., Esfahlani, F. Z., Sayama, H., and Strauss, G. P. (2018). An ecological momentary assessment evaluation of emotion regulation abnormalities in schizophrenia. Psychol. Med. 48, 2337–2345. doi: 10.1017/S0033291717003865

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Vorontsova, N., Garety, P., and Freeman, D. (2013). Cognitive factors maintaining persecutory delusions in psychosis: the contribution of depression. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 122, 1121–1131. doi: 10.1037/a0034952

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Waltz, J. A., and Gold, J. M. (2016). Motivational deficits in schizophrenia and the representation of expected value. Curr. Top. Behav. Neurosci. 27, 375–410. doi: 10.1007/7854_2015_385

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Waltz, J. A., Frank, M. J., Robinson, B. M., and Gold, J. M. (2007). Selective reinforcement learning deficits in schizophrenia support predictions from computational models of striatal-cortical dysfunction. Biol. Psychiatry 62, 756–764. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.09.042

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Waltz, J. A., Frank, M. J., Wiecki, T. V., and Gold, J. M. (2011). Altered probabilistic learning and response biases in schizophrenia: behavioral evidence and neurocomputational modeling. Neuropsychology 25, 86–97. doi: 10.1037/a0020882

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Waltz, J. A., Xu, Z., Brown, E. C., Ruiz, R. R., Frank, M. J., and Gold, J. M. (2018). Motivational deficits in schizophrenia are associated with reduced differentiation between gain and loss-avoidance feedback in the striatum. Biol. Psychiatry Cogn. Neurosci. Neuroimaging 3, 239–247. doi: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2017.07.008

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wang, L., Yan, C., Shao, Y., Lv, Q., Neumann, D., and Ettinger, U. (2020). Revisiting anticipatory hedonic processing in patients with schizophrenia: an examination between representation activation and maintenance. Schizophr. Res. 216, 138–146. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2019.12.013

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Watkins, E. R., and Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2014). A habit-goal framework of depressive rumination. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 123, 24–34. doi: 10.1037/a0035540

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Webb, C. A., Auerbach, R. P., Bondy, E., Stanton, C. H., Foti, D., and Pizzagalli, D. A. (2017). Abnormal neural responses to feedback in depressed adolescents. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 126, 19–31. doi: 10.1037/abn0000228

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Weittenhiller, L. P., Mikhail, M. E., Mote, J., Campellone, T. R., and Kring, A. M. (2021). What gets in the way of social engagement in schizophrenia? World J. Psychiatry 11, 13–26. doi: 10.5498/wjp.v11.i1.13

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wells, R., Jacomb, I., Swaminathan, V., Sundram, S., Weinberg, D., Bruggemann, J., et al. (2020). The impact of childhood adversity on cognitive development in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 46, 140–153. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbz033

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Whitmer, A. J., and Gotlib, I. H. (2013). An attentional scope model of rumination. Psychol. Bull. 139, 1036–1061. doi: 10.1037/a0030923

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Whitmer, A. J., Frank, M. J., and Gotlib, I. H. (2012). Sensitivity to reward and punishment in major depressive disorder: effects of rumination and of single versus multiple experiences. Cogn. Emot. 26, 1475–1485. doi: 10.1080/02699931.2012.682973

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wolf, D. H., Satterthwaite, T. D., Kantrowitz, J. J., Katchmar, N., Vandekar, L., Elliott, M. A., et al. (2014). Amotivation in schizophrenia: integrated assessment with behavioral, clinical, and imaging measures. Schizophr. Bull. 40, 1328–1337. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbu026

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Yang, H., Wang, Z., Song, J., Lu, J., Huang, X., Zou, Z., et al. (2020). The positive and negative rumination scale: development and preliminary validation. Curr. Psychol. 39, 483–499. doi: 10.1007/s12144-018-9950-3

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Yang, Q., Gu, R., Tang, P., and Luo, Y. J. (2013). How does cognitive reappraisal affect the response to gains and losses? Psychophysiology 50, 1094–1103. doi: 10.1111/psyp.12091

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Yang, Z. Y., Xie, D. J., Zou, Y. M., Wang, Y., Li, Y., Shi, H. S., et al. (2018). Prospection deficits in schizophrenia: evidence from clinical and subclinical samples. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 127, 710–721. doi: 10.1037/abn0000382

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Yapan, S., Türkçapar, M. H., and Boysan, M. (2020). Rumination, automatic thoughts, dysfunctional attitudes, and thought suppression as transdiagnostic factors in depression and anxiety. Curr. Psychol. 1–17. doi: 10.1080/13548506.2021.1944654

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zou, Y. M., Ni, K., Wang, Y. Y., Yu, E. Q., Lui, S. S. Y., Zhou, F. C., et al. (2020). Effort–cost computation in a transdiagnostic psychiatric sample: differences among patients with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder. Psych. J. 9, 210–222. doi: 10.1002/pchj.316

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Keywords: optimism, cognitive behavioral theory, reappraisal, mindfulness, rumination, social reward sensitivity

Citation: Abram SV, Weittenhiller LP, Bertrand CE, McQuaid JR, Mathalon DH, Ford JM and Fryer SL (2022) Psychological Dimensions Relevant to Motivation and Pleasure in Schizophrenia. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 16:827260. doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2022.827260

Received: 01 December 2021; Accepted: 22 February 2022;
Published: 23 March 2022.

Edited by:

Styliani (Stella) Vlachou, Dublin City University, Ireland

Reviewed by:

Jia Huang, Institute of Psychology (CAS), China
Hannah Frances Clarke, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom

Copyright © 2022 Abram, Weittenhiller, Bertrand, McQuaid, Mathalon, Ford and Fryer. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Susanna L. Fryer, Susanna.fryer@ucsf.edu

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.