Marlon Mauricio Ardila1,2†
Richard Thomas1†
Adriana Santodomingo1
María C. Silva-de la Fuente3Sebastián Muñoz-Leal1
Carlos Landaeta-Aqueveque1*
AnaLía Henríquez4- 1Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad de Concepción, Chillán, Chile
- 2Facultad de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad del Atlántico, Puerto Colombia, Colombia
- 3Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias y Forestales, Universidad Católica del Maule, Curicó, Chile
- 4Facultad de Ciencias de la Naturaleza, Universidad San Sebastián, Concepción, Chile
Tick-borne infectious agents (TBIAs) include several bacteria and protozoa that can infect vertebrates, including humans. Some of these agents can cause important diseases from both a public health perspective, such as Lyme disease, and from an animal health and production viewpoint, such as Texas fever. In Chile, several studies have assessed the presence of tick-borne disease agents in vectors and mammal hosts, mainly in the northern regions, but few studies have assessed the presence of these agents in Central and Southern Chile. This study aimed to assess the presence of three groups of TBIAs—Borrelia, Anaplasmataceae, and Piroplasmida—in cricetid rodents of Central and Southern Chile. A total of 207 specimens from 13 localities between the O’Higgins and Los Lagos regions were captured. DNA was extracted from the liver and spleen, and subsequently underwent polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification targeting the 16S rRNA, flaB, and 18S rRNA genes to detect DNA from Borrelia, Anaplasmataceae, and Piroplasmida, respectively. Although no DNA from these TBIAs was detected, the DNA extraction process was validated by optimal DNA purity ratios (an A260/A280 ratio within the 1.6–2.0 range) and successful internal control amplification in all samples. These results, in addition to findings from previous reports, suggest a very low prevalence of these TBIAs in the rodent population studied. Further research into the factors influencing the presence of these agents and their vectors will provide insight into the reasons underlying this low prevalence.
1 Introduction
Mammals in Chile are represented by nine orders and 150 species, with Rodentia being the order with the highest diversity, comprising 31 genera and 67 native species. This constitutes the highest specific diversity of mammals in Chile, accounting for 61.3% of species richness (1–4). The Cricetidae is the most diverse family of rodents in Chile with 39 species (2). Despite their vast diversity, recent studies of pathogens among rodents in Chile are predominantly focused on searching for gastrointestinal and ectoparasites (5–12), in addition to Trypanosoma cruzi (13), and “Candidatus Orientia chiloensis” infection (14, 15), with few studies on Borrelia (16, 17), Anaplasmataceae (18), and Piroplasmida (19).
Borrelia is a genus of spirochete bacteria, including both pathogenic and non-pathogenic species that affect a variety of hosts, primarily transmitted by ticks. Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, Borrelia afzelii, and Borrelia garinii are species that are known to cause Lyme disease in humans in the northern hemisphere; this disease is primarily transmitted by ticks of the genus Ixodes (20). Other Borrelia species are primarily associated with Ornithodoros spp. and are the agents of tick-borne relapsing fever in humans (21).
Anaplasmataceae is a family of obligate intracellular gram-negative alphaproteobacteria belonging to Rickettsiales. These bacteria can infect ticks and vertebrates, and multiply within host cells, typically in leukocytes or endothelial cells of the blood vessels (22, 23). Diseases caused by bacteria of the Anaplasmataceae family affect humans and animals, and their geographic distribution is often linked to arthropod vectors (22, 23). This family includes Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, Neorickettsia, “Candidatus Neoehrlichia,” and Wolbachia, among other genera (24).
The order Piroplasmida comprises a group of obligate intracellular parasitic protozoa belonging to the phylum Apicomplexa. Ticks transmit these organisms and affect mammals and birds (25, 26). A prominent genus within Piroplasmida is Babesia, which includes various species with distinctive characteristics. Babesia microti is a major cause of human babesiosis in regions such as the Nearctic, while Babesia divergens and Babesia bovis affect bovine livestock in Europe and the Neotropics, respectively (25, 26). Genetic variability and host-specific adaptations present challenges in understanding those diseases.
Rodents play a crucial role as reservoir hosts. At least 2,017 of the 2,777 rodent species described harbor 66 zoonotic agents (27, 28), and cricetid rodents exhibit a higher propensity to carry infectious agents with zoonotic potential (28). Thus, considering the need to understand the distribution of these tick-borne infectious agents (TBIAs) in cricetid rodents in Chile, the objective of this study was to assess the presence of Borrelia, Anaplasmataceae, and Piroplasmida in cricetid rodents in Central and Southern Chile.
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Study area and rodent collection
Collections were performed from 2017 to 2019 in 13 localities in Central and Southern Chile between latitudes 34 and 43°S (Figure 1). This area encompasses climates ranging from Mediterranean in the Ñuble National Reserve to temperate oceanic in the other localities, with increasing humidity and decreasing temperatures as one moves southward. Trapping and euthanasia were performed as previously described (29) and according to the American Veterinary Medical Association Guidelines for the Euthanasia of Animals 2020 (30). Liver and spleen samples were preserved in 95% ethanol for up to 20 days and kept at −20°C until DNA extraction process, 1–3 months later. The number of captured specimens per species was based on capture permits granted by Chilean authorities; likewise, this number was also constrained by trapping success, and all captures adhered to Chilean legislation (31).
Figure 1. Map of Chile illustrating the localities of rodent collections, indicated by red numerals. Administrative regions are labeled with Roman numerals. NP = National Park. The maps were constructed using the Quantum Geographic Information System (QGIS) 3.18.1-Zürich (https://www.gnu.org/licenses). Map Layer was obtained from OpenStreetMap®, which is licensed under the Open Data Commons Open Database License (ODbL) by the OpenStreetMap Foundation (OSMF). Rodent silhouettes were obtained from the PhyloPic portal (https://www.phylopic.org/) (accessed on 28 Jan 2024).
2.2 DNA extraction and gene amplification
Genomic DNA was extracted from organ samples using the DNeasy Blood & Tissue Kit™ (QIAGEN®, Hilden, Germany) according to the manufacturer’s protocol and eluted in 40 μL of buffer AE (10 mM Tris–Cl; 0.5 mM ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid [EDTA], pH 9.0). DNA concentration was quantified with an Epoch™ Microplate Spectrophotometer (BioTek Instruments, Inc., Winooski, VT, United States), and quality of the sample was checked by means of the A260/280 ratio according to Khare et al. (32). Successful DNA extractions were confirmed through conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting the mammalian glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) gene (33). GAPDH-positive samples were subsequently used for genetic screenings for Borrelia, Anaplasmataceae, and Piroplasmida using molecular markers, primers, and thermal conditions stated in Supplementary Table S1. PCRs were performed in a thermal cycler ProFlex™ Base 32 × 3 (Applied Biosystems, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, United States) using 25 μL of the reaction mixtures containing the following proportions: 12.5 μL DreamTaq Green PCR Master Mix (Thermo Fisher Scientific), 1 μL of each primer (0.4 μM), 8.5 μL of ultra-pure water, and 2 μL of template DNA. Positive controls included DNA from Borrelia anserina PL (GenBank code DQ849626), Anaplasma platys (OQ155255), and Babesia sp. “pudui” (ON994405). Ultra-pure water was used as a negative control. PCR products were stained with GelRed® (Biotum, Tehran, Iran), subjected to horizontal electrophoresis in 2.0% agarose gels, and then visualized using an ENDURO™ GDS UV transilluminator (Labnet International, Edison, NJ, United States).
2.3 Ethical aspects
The procedures performed in this study were verified and approved by the Bioethics Committee of the School of Veterinary Sciences, Universidad de Concepción (CBE 47–2017; CBE-51-2019). The capture of rodents and field work in national parks and reserves were authorized by the Servicio Agrícola y Ganadero (SAG; #7034–2017, #7684/2017, #3731/2018, #8517/2018, #774/2019, and #1829/2020), and the Corporación Nacional Forestal (CONAF; Permits #045–2017 and #005–2019), respectively.
3 Results
A total of 207 rodents belonging to six species and four genera were captured (see Supplementary Table S2 for details). The most abundant species was Abrothrix olivacea, with 93 individuals, followed by Abrotrix hirta, with 77 individuals, and Oligoryzomys longicaudatus, with 31 individuals. The highest number of rodents were collected at Conguillio National Park and Sendero Bosque Piedra, with 47 rodents at each location (Supplementary Table S2). PCRs targeting the GAPDH gene produced amplicons of the expected size in all samples, confirming successful DNA extraction. All samples presented optimal DNA purity ratios (an A260/A280 DNA ratio within the 1.6–2.0 range). However, screenings for Borrelia, Anaplasmataceae, and Piroplasmida yielded negative results in all rodent samples while DNA in positive control was successfully detected.
4 Discussion
Recognizing infectious agents in wildlife is crucial for understanding disease dynamics, which is essential for both preserving biodiversity and preventing disease transmission to humans and domestic animals (34). Hence, continuous surveillance of these rodent species is imperative for public and animal health, as well as for ecosystem management (35).
To the best of our knowledge, this study represents the first assessment of the presence of DNA from Borrelia and piroplasmids, and the second assessment of Anaplamataceae bacteria in cricetid rodents from Central and Southern Chile, with screenings yielding negative outcomes among all cricetid rodent samples. The absence of DNA from these TBIAs in the surveyed rodents may arise due to multiple factors, including potential compromises in DNA extraction quality (32), the non-presence of DNA from screened TBIAs, or the lack of suitable vectors in the sampled areas (36, 37). However, the first statement was dismissed since all samples showed optimal DNA purity ratios, conducive to effective PCR amplification (32). This, coupled with successful internal control amplification, validated the DNA extraction process (33).
The non-detection of DNA of TBIA in the samples examined in this work contrasts with prior findings in other Chilean regions, where the DNA of Borrelia, members of the Anaplasmataceae family, and the Piroplasmida order have been reported in various tick genera, including Ixodes (16, 19, 38–40), and Ornithodoros (38, 41–43), as well as in their associated hosts (17–19, 39, 44, 45).
Regarding cricetid rodents, surveys in northern Chile have detected Borrelia DNA in blood samples from Oligoryzomys longicaudatus and Phyllotis xanthopygus collected in Bosque Fray Jorge National Park and Socoroma, respectively (17). Additionally, Borrelia DNA was detected in Ixodes sigelos group ticks on Phyllotis darwini and Abrothrix longipillis in Bosque Fray Jorge National Park and Isla Mocha National Park (38), and in Ornithodoros sp. ticks feeding on P. darwini in Río Los Cipreses National Reserve (41). In southern Chile, Borrelia chilensis DNA was found in Ixodes stilesi from O. longicaudatus in Valdivia (16). Collectively, these findings point to the prevalence of three genotypes and a unique genospecies, B. chilensis, within the Lyme Borrelia group, in addition to three genotypes from the Relapsing fever Borrelia group, thereby underscoring the Borrelia diversity associated with these rodents and their potential role as a reservoir host for the Borrelia species (16, 17).
Conversely, the detection of Anaplasmataceae DNA in cricetid rodents is limited, with records primarily involving “Candidatus Neoehrlichia chilensis” found in the tissue of Abrothrix rodents captured in the Corral commune in Valdivia (18), and in I. sigelos ticks from P. darwini in Bosque Fray Jorge National Park (38). Notably, DNA of “Ca. N. chilensis” has been predominantly detected in Ixodes ticks (46) and their associated hosts (18, 47). This suggests that “Ca. N. chilensis” could be transmitted by widespread Ixodes species among cricetid rodent populations in Chile. Thus, the involvement of Abrothrix rodents and I. sigelos in the epidemiology of “Ca N. chilensis” is highlighted (18, 38).
In 2022, the Piroplasmida order was associated with cricetid rodents in Chile for the first time (19); the DNA of Babesia was detected in the blood samples of Abrothrix jelskii collected in Parinatoca and P. darwini in Llanos de Challe National Park. Interestingly, despite being collected ~1,122 Km apart, two samples each from A. jelskii and P. darwini shared the same Babesia haplotype. This finding suggests a ubiquitous vector for this genotype, which is part of a novel Babesia group associated with South American small mammals (19, 48, 49). Additionally, a distinct Babesia genotype found in P. darwini from Llanos de Challe National Park aligns with the Babesia microti group, underscoring the emerging diversity of Babesia in Chilean cricetid rodents (45).
In addition to rodents, records of the evaluated TBIAs in wildlife in Chile include the detection of A. platys DNA in fox species Lycalopex culpaeus and Lycalopex griseus in central and northern Chile (44). Notably, A. platys primarily associates with ticks from the Rhipicephalus sanguineus group, which are common on canids (50). Other reports include DNA detections of Babesia sp. “Pudui” and the Anaplasma phagocytophilum “Patagonia” variant in both mainland and insular populations of the cervid Pudu puda, and in I. stilesi ticks that infest them in southern Chile (39, 45). Although I. stilesi commonly parasitizes the rodent O. longicaudatus (51) and is considered a potential vector of these infectious agents, the Babesia sp. “Pudui” and A. phagocytophilum “Patagonia” variant seem to have specific vertebrate host preferences (52, 53), primarily for P. puda in Chile (39, 45). This host specificity might account for our inability to detect the DNA of these TBIAs in O. longicaudatus samples.
The lack of TBIA DNA in our samples raises important hypotheses regarding the dynamics of these agents in the studied rodent populations: Is there an undetected low prevalence of the evaluated TBIAs in the sampled areas, or are these TBIAs absent in the surveyed rodent populations? Unpublished data from our sampling indicate a very low prevalence of ticks, a fact that supports the first hypothesis, given that the presence of the vector would imply the circulation of the TBIAs. Further studies focusing on the temporal and spatial variability of TBIAs in Chilean cricetid rodents, the frequency of these TBIAs in vectors, and the factors affecting the presence of these infectious agents in rodents will be insightful in answering these questions.
Data availability statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Ethics statement
The animal study was approved by the Bioethics Committee of the School of Veterinary Sciences, Universidad de Concepción: CBE 47–2017; CBE-51-2019. The study was conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements.
Author contributions
MA: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. RT: Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. AS: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. MS-dF: Methodology, Writing – review & editing. SM-L: Funding acquisition, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. CL-A: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. AH: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – review & editing.
Funding
The author(s) declare financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This study was funded by the Fondo Nacional de Desarrollo Científico y Tecnológico ANID/FONDECYT (grant nos. 11170294 and 1241748), FONDECYT INICIACION (grant no. 11220177), and the ANID Programa Becas Doctorado Nacional (grant nos. 2019–21190078, 2020–21200182 and 2022–21220118).
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Felipe Lobos, Fernanda Figueroa, Hellen Espinoza, Javiera Muñoz, Bárbara Butamante, and Claudio Yáñez for fieldwork support. We also thank Fidel Castro Reboredo and Lleretny Rodriguez Alvarez for their collaboration in the laboratory work. English-language editing of this manuscript was provided by Journal Prep Services.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
Supplementary material
The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2024.1399783/full#supplementary-material
References
1. Ceballos, G, and Simonetti, J. Diversidad Y Conservación De Los Mamíferos Neotropicales: Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad Mexico. Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad, CONABIO. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Instituto de Ecología (2002).
2. D’Elía, G, Canto, J, Ossa, G, Verde-Arregoitia, LD, Bostelmann, E, Iriarte, A, et al. Lista Actualizada De Los Mamíferos Vivientes De Chile. Boletín Museo Nacional Hist Nat. (2020) 69:67–98. doi: 10.54830/bmnhn.v69.n2.2020.6
3. Muñoz-Pedreros, A, and Gil, C. Orden Rodentia In: A Muñoz-Pedreros and J Yáñez, editors. Mamíferos De Chile. 2nd ed. Valdivia: Editorial CEA (2009). 93–157.
5. Carrera-Játiva, PD, Torres, C, Figueroa-Sandoval, F, Beltrami, E, Verdugo, C, Landaeta-Aqueveque, C, et al. Gastrointestinal parasites in wild rodents in Chiloé Island-Chile. Rev Bras Parasitol Vet. (2023) 32:e017022. doi: 10.1590/s1984-29612023002
6. Fuenzalida-Araya, K, González-Aguayo, F, Moreno, L, Landaeta-Aqueveque, C, Santodomingo, A, Silva-De La Fuente, C, et al. New Records of Gigantolaelaps Wolffsohni (Mesostigmata: Laelapidae) in Chile, an Ectoparasite of Oligoryzomys Longicaudatus (Rodentia: Cricetidae): ecological aspects and relation to body size and sex of their host. Acarologia. (2022) 62:965–73. doi: 10.24349/nze0-ju8m
7. González-Aguayo, F, Fuenzalida-Araya, K, Landaeta-Aqueveque, C, Moreno Salas, L, Santodomingo, A, and Silva-De La Fuente, MC. Evaluation of the influence of biotic and abiotic factors on the prevalence and abundance of infestations of Mysolaelaps Microspinosus (Fonseca, 1936) (Mesostigmata: Laelapidae) on Oligoryzomys Longicaudatus (Bennett, 1832) in Chile. Acarologia. (2023) 63:735–43. doi: 10.24349/54md-k7v0
8. Grandón-Ojeda, A, Moreno, L, Garcés-Tapia, C, Figueroa-Sandoval, F, Beltrán-Venegas, J, Serrano-Reyes, J, et al. Patterns of gastrointestinal helminth infections in Rattus Rattus, Rattus Norvegicus, and Mus Musculus in Chile. Fron Vet Sci. (2022) 9:929208. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2022.929208
9. Landaeta-Aqueveque, C, Henríquez, A, and Cattan, PE. Introduced species: domestic mammals are more significant transmitters of parasites to native mammals than are feral mammals. Int J Parasitol. (2014) 44:243–9. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2013.12.002
10. Riquelme, M, Salgado, R, Simonetti, JA, Landaeta-Aqueveque, C, Fredes, F, and Rubio, AV. Intestinal helminths in wild rodents from native Forest and exotic pine plantations (Pinus Radiata) in Central Chile. Animals. (2021) 11:384. doi: 10.3390/ani11020384
11. Silva-De La Fuente, MC, Stekolnikov, AA, Weitzel, T, Beltrami, E, Martínez-Valdebenito, C, Abarca, K, et al. Chigger mites (Acariformes: Trombiculidae) of Chiloé Island, Chile, with descriptions of two new species and new data on the genus Herpetacarus. J Med Entomol. (2021) 58:646–57. doi: 10.1093/jme/tjaa258
12. Silva-De La Fuente, MC, Moreno Salas, L, Casanueva, ME, Lareschi, M, and González-Acuña, D. Morphometric variation of Androlaelaps Fahrenholzi (Mesostigmata: Laelapidae) associated with three Sigmodontinae (Rodentia: Cricetidae) from the north of Chile. Exp Appl Acarol. (2020) 81:135–48. doi: 10.1007/s10493-020-00490-6
13. Correa, JP, Bacigalupo, A, Yefi-Quinteros, E, Rojo, G, Solari, A, Cattan, PE, et al. Trypanosomatid infections among vertebrates of Chile: a systematic review. Pathogens. (2020) 9:661. doi: 10.3390/pathogens9080661
14. Acosta-Jamett, G, Martínez-Valdebenito, C, Beltrami, E, Silva-De La Fuente, MC, Jiang, J, Richards, AL, et al. Identification of Trombiculid mites (Acari: Trombiculidae) on rodents from Chiloé Island and molecular evidence of infection with Orientia species. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. (2020) 14:e0007619. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007619
15. Silva De La Fuente, MC, Pérez, C, Martínez-Valdebenito, C, Pérez, R, Vial, C, Stekolnikov, A, et al. Eco-epidemiology of rodent-associated Trombiculid mites and infection with Orientia Spp. in southern Chile. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. (2023) 17:e0011051. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0011051
16. Ivanova, LB, Tomova, A, González-Acuña, D, Murúa, R, Moreno, CX, Hernández, C, et al. Borrelia Chilensis, a new member of the Borrelia Burgdorferi Sensu Lato complex that extends the range of this Genospecies in the southern hemisphere. Environ Microbiol. (2014) 16:1069–80. doi: 10.1111/1462-2920.12310
17. Thomas Sánchez, RS, Santodomingo, AMS, Muñoz-Leal, S, Silva-De La Fuente, MC, Llanos-Soto, S, Salas, LM, et al. Rodents as potential reservoirs for Borrelia spp. in northern Chile. Rev Bras Parasitol Vet. (2020) 29:e000120. doi: 10.1590/s1984-29612020029
18. Müller, A, Monti, G, Otth, C, Sepúlveda, P, Bittencourt, P, Nachum-Biala, Y, et al. “Candidatus Neoehrlichia Chilensis” sp. nov.: molecular detection and characterization of a novel Anaplasmataceae in wild rodents from Valdivia, southern Chile. Transbound Emerg Dis. (2018) 65:357–62. doi: 10.1111/tbed.12815
19. Santodomingo, A, Robbiano, S, Thomas, R, Parragué-Migone, C, Cabello-Stom, J, Vera-Otarola, F, et al. A search for Piroplasmids and spirochetes in threatened Pudu (Pudu Puda) and associated ticks from southern Chile unveils a novel Babesia Sp. and a variant of Borrelia Chilensis. Transbound Emerg Dis. (2022) 69:3737–48. doi: 10.1111/tbed.14743
20. Rauter, C, and Hartung, T. Prevalence of Borrelia Burgdorferi Sensu Lato Genospecies in Ixodes Ricinus ticks in Europe: a Metaanalysis. Appl Environ Microbiol. (2005) 71:7203–16. doi: 10.1128/aem.71.11.7203-7216.2005
21. Talagrand-Reboul, E, Boyer, PH, Bergström, S, Vial, L, and Boulanger, N. Relapsing fevers: neglected tick-borne diseases. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. (2018) 8:98. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00098
22. Atif, FA. Alpha Proteobacteria of genus Anaplasma (Rickettsiales: Anaplasmataceae): epidemiology and characteristics of Anaplasma species related to veterinary and public health importance. Parasitology. (2016) 143:659–85. doi: 10.1017/s0031182016000238
23. Rar, V, and Golovljova, I. Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, and “Candidatus Neoehrlichia” Bacteria: pathogenicity, biodiversity, and molecular genetic characteristics, a review. Infect Genet Evol. (2011) 11:1842–61. doi: 10.1016/j.meegid.2011.09.019
24. Dumler, JS, Barbet, AF, Bekker, CP, Dasch, GA, Palmer, GH, Ray, SC, et al. Reorganization of genera in the families Rickettsiaceae and Anaplasmataceae in the order Rickettsiales: unification of some species of Ehrlichia with Anaplasma, Cowdria with Ehrlichia and Ehrlichia with Neorickettsia, descriptions of six new species combinations and designation of Ehrlichia Equi and 'Hge Agent' as subjective synonyms of Ehrlichia Phagocytophila. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. (2001) 51:2145–65. doi: 10.1099/00207713-51-6-2145
25. Lack, JB, Reichard, MV, and Van Den Bussche, RA. Phylogeny and evolution of the Piroplasmida as inferred from 18s Rrna sequences. Int J Parasitol. (2012) 42:353–63. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2012.02.005
26. Schnittger, L, Ganzinelli, S, Bhoora, R, Omondi, D, Nijhof, AM, and Florin-Christensen, M. The Piroplasmida Babesia, Cytauxzoon, and Theileria in farm and companion animals: species compilation, molecular phylogeny, and evolutionary insights. Parasitol Res. (2022) 121:1207–45. doi: 10.1007/s00436-022-07424-8
27. Dahmana, H, Granjon, L, Diagne, C, Davoust, B, Fenollar, F, and Mediannikov, O. Rodents as hosts of pathogens and related zoonotic disease risk. Pathogens. (2020) 9:202. doi: 10.3390/pathogens9030202
28. Han, BA, Schmidt, JP, Bowden, SE, and Drake, JM. Rodent reservoirs of future zoonotic diseases. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. (2015) 112:7039–44. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1501598112
29. Espinoza-Rojas, H, Lobos-Chávez, F, Silva-de la Fuente, MC, Echeverry, DM, Muñoz-Galaz, J, Yáñez-Crisóstomo, C, et al. Survey of Trichinella in American minks (Neovison Vison Schreber, 1777) and wild rodents (Muridae and Cricetidae) in Chile. Zoonoses Public Health. (2021) 68:842–8. doi: 10.1111/zph.12845
30. Leary, S, Underwood, W, Anthony, R, Cartner, S, Grandin, T, Greenacre, C, et al. Avma guidelines for the euthanasia of animals: 2020 edition USA, AVMA. American Veterinary Medical Association (2020).
31. SAG. Ley De Caza Y Su Reglamento Santiago, Chile (2012). Available at: http://www.sag.cl/sites/default/files/ley_caza_edicion2012.pdf.
32. Khare, P, Raj, V, Chandra, S, and Agarwal, S. Quantitative and qualitative assessment of DNA extracted from saliva for its use in forensic identification. J Forensic Dent Sci. (2014) 6:81–5. doi: 10.4103/0975-1475.132529
33. Birkenheuer, AJ, Levy, MG, and Breitschwerdt, EB. Development and evaluation of a Seminested Pcr for detection and differentiation of Babesia Gibsoni (Asian genotype) and B. canis DNA in canine blood samples. J Clin Microbiol. (2003) 41:4172–7. doi: 10.1128/jcm.41.9.4172-4177.2003
34. Baneth, G. Tick-borne infections of animals and humans: a common ground. Int J Parasitol. (2014) 44:591–6. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2014.03.011
35. Karesh, WB, Dobson, A, Lloyd-Smith, JO, Lubroth, J, Dixon, MA, Bennett, M, et al. Ecology of Zoonoses: natural and unnatural histories. Lancet. (2012) 380:1936–45. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(12)61678-x
36. Dantas-Torres, F. Climate change, biodiversity, ticks and tick-borne diseases: the butterfly effect. Int J Parasitol. (2015) 4:452–61. doi: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2015.07.001
37. Dantas-Torres, F, Chomel, BB, and Otranto, D. Ticks and tick-borne diseases: a one health perspective. Trends Parasitol. (2012) 28:437–46. doi: 10.1016/j.pt.2012.07.003
38. Muñoz-Leal, S, Lopes, MG, Marcili, A, Martins, TF, González-Acuña, D, and Labruna, MB. Anaplasmataceae, Borrelia and Hepatozoon agents in ticks (Acari: Argasidae, Ixodidae) from Chile. Acta Trop. (2019) 192:91–103. doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2019.02.002
39. Santodomingo, A, Thomas, R, Robbiano, S, Uribe, JE, Parragué-Migone, C, Cabello-Stom, J, et al. Wild deer (Pudu Puda) from Chile Harbor a novel ecotype of Anaplasma Phagocytophilum. Parasit Vect. (2023) 16:38. doi: 10.1186/s13071-023-05657-9
40. Verdugo, C, Jiménez, O, Hernández, C, Álvarez, P, Espinoza, A, and González-Acuña, D. Infection with Borrelia chilensis in Ixodes stilesi ticks collected from Pudu puda deer. Ticks Tick-Borne Dis. (2017) 8:733–40. doi: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2017.05.007
41. Muñoz-Leal, S, Marcili, A, Fuentes-Castillo, D, Ayala, M, and Labruna, MB. A relapsing fever Borrelia and spotted fever Rickettsia in ticks from an Andean valley, Central Chile. Exp Appl Acarol. (2019) 78:403–20. doi: 10.1007/s10493-019-00389-x
42. Santodomingo, A, Thomas, R, Thompson, M, Robbiano, S, Espinoza, P, and Muñoz-Leal, S. Experimental transmission of a novel relapsing fever group Borrelia harbored by Ornithodoros octodontus (Ixodida: Argasidae) in Chile. Exp Appl Acarol. (2024) 92:241–52. doi: 10.1007/s10493-023-00881-5
43. Thompson, M, Muñoz-Leal, S, Troncoso, I, Thomas, RS, Santodomingo, AM, Moreno-Salas, L, et al. A Borrelia sp. in Ornithodoros octodontus (Argasidae). Syst Appl Acarol. (2021) 26:1997–2001, 5. doi: 10.11158/saa.26.11.1
44. Di Cataldo, S, Ulloa-Contreras, C, Cevidanes, A, Hernández, C, and Millán, J. Babesia Vogeli in dogs in Chile. Transbound Emerg Dis. (2020) 67:2296–9. doi: 10.1111/tbed.13609
45. Santodomingo, AM, Thomas, RS, Quintero-Galvis, JF, Echeverry-Berrio, DM, La Fuente, MCS-D, Moreno-Salas, L, et al. Apicomplexans in small mammals from Chile, with the first report of the Babesia microti group in South American Rodents. Parasitol Res. (2022) 121:1009–20. doi: 10.1007/s00436-022-07452-4
46. Gofton, AW, Doggett, S, Ratchford, A, Ryan, U, and Irwin, P. Phylogenetic characterisation of two novel Anaplasmataceae from Australian Ixodes holocyclus ticks: 'Candidatus Neoehrlichia Australis' and 'Candidatus Neoehrlichia arcana'. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. (2016) 66:4256–61. doi: 10.1099/ijsem.0.001344
47. Kawahara, M, Rikihisa, Y, Isogai, E, Takahashi, M, Misumi, H, Suto, C, et al. Ultrastructure and phylogenetic analysis of ‘Candidatus Neoehrlichia Mikurensis'; in the family Anaplasmataceae, isolated from wild rats and found in Ixodes ovatus ticks. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. (2004) 54:1837–43. doi: 10.1099/ijs.0.63260-0
48. Ikeda, P, Menezes, TR, Torres, JM, De Oliveira, CE, Lourenço, EC, Herrera, HM, et al. First molecular detection of Piroplasmids in non-hematophagous bats from Brazil, with evidence of putative novel species. Parasitol Res. (2021) 120:301–10. doi: 10.1007/s00436-020-06985-w
49. Wolf, RW, Aragona, M, Muñoz-Leal, S, Pinto, LB, Melo, ALT, Braga, IA, et al. Novel Babesia and Hepatozoon agents infecting non-Volant small mammals in the Brazilian Pantanal, with the first record of the tick Ornithodoros Guaporensis in Brazil. Ticks Tick-Borne Dis. (2016) 7:449–56. doi: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2016.01.005
50. Rar, V, Tkachev, S, and Tikunova, N. Genetic diversity of Anaplasma Bacteria: twenty years later. Infect Genet Evol. (2021) 91:104833. doi: 10.1016/j.meegid.2021.104833
51. Nava, S, Venzal, JM, Acuña, DG, Martins, TF, and Guglielmone, AA. Ticks of the southern cone of America: diagnosis, distribution, and hosts with taxonomy, ecology and sanitary importance. United Kingdom and United States. Academic Press. (2017).
52. Dugat, T, Lagrée, A-C, Maillard, R, Boulouis, H-J, and Haddad, N. Opening the black box of Anaplasma phagocytophilum diversity: current situation and future perspectives. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. (2015) 5:61. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2015.00061
Keywords: tick-borne disease, wild rodents, genetic screenings, surveillance, South American rodents
Citation: Ardila MM, Thomas R, Santodomingo A, Silva-de la Fuente MC, Muñoz-Leal S, Landaeta-Aqueveque C and Henríquez A (2024) Molecular survey of tick-borne infectious agents in cricetid rodents (Rodentia: Cricetidae) in Central and Southern Chile. Front. Vet. Sci. 11:1399783. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1399783
Edited by:
Victor Martinez, University of Chile, ChileReviewed by:
Benjamin Cull, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, United StatesRoxanne Charles, The University of the West Indies St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
Copyright © 2024 Ardila, Thomas, Santodomingo, Silva-de la Fuente, Muñoz-Leal, Landaeta-Aqueveque and Henríquez. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Carlos Landaeta-Aqueveque, Y2xhbmRhZXRhQHVkZWMuY2w=
†These authors share first authorship