Abstract
X-ray detection for personal dosimetry requires sensitive, stable and non-toxic materials. At the same time, scalability onto large-area and flexible substrates is emerging as a desirable property. To satisfy these requirements, novel materials to be employed as the active layer of direct X-ray detectors are needed. In this search for easy-processability, large area, efficient and non-toxic materials for direct X-ray detection, we assess the performance of a layered metal-organic chalcogenide [AgSePh]∞, recently proposed as representative of a novel excitonic semiconductors platform. Here we demonstrate that [AgSePh]∞ can be successfully applied as direct ionizing radiation detecting layer, reaching sensitivities up to (180 ± 10) μC Gy−1 cm−2 and competitive limit of detection down to (100 ± 30) nGy s−1. Moreover, it offers good stability and reproducibility of detection after 100 Gy of irradiation and upon bending to a curvature radius of 5 mm.
1 Introduction
The research of novel materials able to detect high-energy radiation is a long-lasting topic due to its impact on many diverse fields, spanning from astrophysics to health diagnostic, and security screening. In the last decade, new quests such as scalability onto large and flexible surfaces, low production cost and low-power consumption are emerging. Moreover, additional properties, such as low toxicity, are highly desirable in specific applications such as personal dosimetry during radiation medical treatments or in radiation harsh environments.
For these reasons, the scientific community has recently explored novel materials, and the use of thin films instead of bulky and rigid single crystals as active layers has been put forward [1]. Among inorganic semiconductors, amorphous selenium (a-Se) and polycrystalline Cadmium Zinc Telluride (poly-CZT) represent the benchmark for the development of large-area ionizing radiation detectors [2]. In the last few years, the new materials class of metal halide perovskites (MHP) has been deeply investigated to harness their exceptional optoelectronic properties [14]. MHP offer several advantages such as the high attenuation fraction and excellent transport properties (i.e., high mobility-lifetime product µτ) which lead to outstanding detecting efficiency [1,3–6]. They can be deposited from solution by low-cost fabrication techniques, compatible with flexible polymeric substrates and easy scalable onto large and curved surfaces [7,8]. The main issue related to MHP is the presence of water-soluble lead, which raises concerns related to their use as personal dosimeters. Besides, the fabrication processes of these materials use highly-toxic solvents not compatible with environmental sustainability. To tackle these issues, MHPs with alternative elemental compositions and different fabrication procedures are under study. For instance, green solvents are being tested and lead-free compounds such as MA3Bi2I9 [9,10], Cs2TeI6 [11], Cs2AgBiBr6 [65] are emerging as promising X-ray detection candidates. Nevertheless, devices fabricated with these materials are based on rare elements (e.g., Bi, Te) and present several stability issues under operating conditions: environmental factors, such as humidity, oxygen, temperature, and light, significantly affect material’s stability by inducing phase transitions or segregation, crystal decomposition and erratic current-voltage characteristics. Finally, ion migration is a well-known but still unsolved problem related to this material platform that induces dark current drifts during prolonged biasing [12,13]. A possible alternative toward lead-free low toxic detectors is the employment of organic semiconducting materials as active layers. This approach has already demonstrated good results for different types of radiation (e.g., X-rays [14–20], protons [21,22], neutrons [23]). However, in organic semiconductors the ionizing radiation absorption rate is very poor due to the low-Z of the constituents, which limits the active layer stopping power and ultimately, the detectors’ quantum efficiency.
In the last few years, many studies have shed a spotlight on the peculiar excitonic and optoelectronic properties of self-assembled hybrid quantum wells materials (i.e., highly confined layered materials). Layered MHPs are the most studied among low dimensional hybrid materials for the detection of high energy radiation [24–26,73] because of their high attenuation fraction and potentially high charge carrier mobilities. Despite the excellent performances already reported in literature for this class of materials, the intrinsic instability of the ionic lattice and the presence of toxic elements urged the search for alternative materials. Among other low dimensional hybrids, the covalently bound coordination polymer silver benzeneselenolate [AgSePh]∞ [27–33] has been recently re-discovered as a direct bandgap semiconductor with good optoelectronic performances. This compound is part of a new material class of 2D quantum confined metal-organic chalcogenides materials (MOCs) that offer a simple fabrication via wet chemistry and whose light absorption and emission can be chemically tuned thanks to their peculiar 2D excitonic properties [29,33,34]. These materials are air-stable and do not contain potentially hazardous metals. In 2021, the MOCs strong absorption coefficient and good electrical transport properties have been leveraged to demonstrate the application of [AgSePh]∞ in near-UV photo-detection [27]. Here, further exploring the light matter interaction in the MOC material class, we investigate the response of [AgSePh]∞ in the high energy photon range (i.e. 40 kVp) implementing a new X-ray detector able to overcome many of the limits imposed by the present technologies.
2 Results and discussion
In Figure 1A the sketch of the co-planar X-ray photodetector based on [AgSePh]∞ is illustrated. The device was fabricated on a flexible 125 µm thick PEN (poliyethylene naphtalate) substrate. The gold charge-collecting electrodes were thermally evaporated onto the plastic substrate. The active layer was made by [AgSePh]∞ deposited following the 3-steps procedure described in a previous work [28]. Briefly, a silver thin-film (200 nm thick) was thermally evaporated onto the pre-patterned devices; subsequently, the silver was oxidized by O2 plasma treatment and it underwent chemical transformation into the final product upon exposure to benzeneselenol vapors at 90°C in an inert atmosphere (for more details see Materials and Methods section). The characterization of the chemical composition and the optoelectronic properties of the final [AgSePh]∞ film has been already reported in literature [28]. The optical image of the pixel area (1 mm × 1 mm, channel lengths L = 5 µm or L = 40 µm) and the atomic force microscopy (AFM) map reported in Figure 1B show the nanocrystalline morphology of the deposited film. The tested active layers present a thickness of 2 µm and nanocrystals lateral sizes is about 300 nm. Figure 1B shows the good uniformity and high film coverage over the entire area of the pixel. The fabrication procedure took place at low temperature (T < 100°C), compatible with polymeric substrates, leading to the realization of flexible devices (see Figure 1C). A typical current-voltage IV) curve of the device in dark conditions is reported in Figure 1D. The lack of hysteresis and the electrical dark conductivity of (344 ± 5) pS cm−1 [27] are comparable to what previously reported in literature for similar devices fabricated on PEN substrate. Here the electrical conductivity has been calculated considering the geometrical dimensions of the device (channel length L = 40 μm, width W = 23 mm, active layer thickness = 2 µm) and the linear fit of the IV curve reported in Figure 1D and plotted in linear scale.
FIGURE 1
Thanks to the presence of high-Z elements as silver and selenium, [AgSePh]∞ presents an X-ray stopping power much higher than silicon and organic layers, as it is reported in Figure 2A. For a 1 µm thick active layer of [AgSePh]∞ the attenuated fraction of 15.2 keV photons (i.e., the energy mean value of the radiation spectrum produced by a W-target X-ray tube biased at 40 kVp) is 0.9%, a much higher value than for organic semiconductors (e.g., TIPS-pentacene, 0.01%) and slightly lower than for standard inorganic semiconducting materials (e.g., CZT 3%, CdTe 2%, Se 4%) and hybrid perovskites (2%–3%). This feature is very promising towards the development of efficient X-ray dosimeters to be employed in the medical field, since it provides high attenuation of high energy radiation keeping the low toxicity related to the absence of lead.
FIGURE 2
We characterized the devices under X-rays produced by a W-target tube kept at 40 kVp and varying the dose rate by changing the current in the range [100–500] µA. Figure 2B shows the dynamic response of the detector for three different bias conditions (i.e. 5, 10, 20 V). The sample was irradiated by subsequent irradiation cycles (10 s ON, 10 s OFF) at four different dose rates (255, 526, 930, 1,330 μGy s−1). For each dose rate, three consecutive identical irradiation cycles were performed to test the repeatability of the detector response. We calculated the photocurrent as the variation of the current flowing in the device channel when the X-rays are turned ON () and the dark current (i.e., when X-rays are turned OFF, ). In Figure 2C, the induced photocurrent as a function of the dose rate is reported for the three voltages. The sensitivity of the detector to the X-rays can be extracted as the slope of the linear fitting curve. The sensitivity is one of the most relevant parameters that describe the detecting performance of a device and for a linear detector (i.e., the detecting response is linear with the radiation intensity) can be expressed by the following equation:
The maximum measured value of sensitivity per unit area is S = (180 ± 10) μC Gy−1 cm−2 (when an electric field of 5,000 V m−1 is applied and a pixel area of 1 mm2 is considered). Considering this operation conditions, this sensitivity value is comparable with the ones reported for full-organic and hybrid perovskite thin film-based X-ray detectors and higher than the sensitivity of a-Se and poly-CZT, which represent the inorganic benchmarks for large area ionizing radiation detection [1,20,35].
Figures 2C, D show the detector response as fabricated and after 6 months stored in dark ambient conditions (i.e., air, room temperature). The samples do not present any degradation due to the aging and the detector performance remains constant with a sensitivity variation within 10% with respect to the pristine device values. The excellent stability represents a further great advantage of this sensing material platform. Other materials such as MHPs present comparable X-ray efficiency but poorer stability if not encapsulated and stored in ambient conditions which limits their employment in real applications. For MHPs single crystals (SC), the longest ageing studies reported so far are of about 6 months by Kovalenko et al. (non-incapsulated MAPbI3 SC, efficiency degradation 12%) [36], and 2 months by Liu et al. (MA3Bi2I9 SC, photocurrent degradation 9.2%) [37] and by Wei et al. (MAPbBr3 SC) [38]. For MHP polycrystalline films Zhao et al. reported a MAPbI3 membrane which showed an unchanged sensitivity after 6 months of storage in nitrogen [39] and Glushkova et al. demonstrated stability after 9 months ageing of a MAPbI3 film encapsulated with PDMS (Polydimethylsiloxane) [8]. Only the last year, Fraboni et al. reported a record stability (97% after 630 days) for two different perovskite films (i.e., MAPbI3 and FAxMA1–xPbI3) deposited using starch as templating agent [40].
The proposed detector is demonstrated to be radiation tolerant up to a tested total dose of 100 Gy air kerma. As it is shown in Figure 3A, the variation of the photocurrent response remains constant (within 5%) up to this total irradiation, which corresponds, for instance, to the typical value delivered for 6.7 million of full-mouth dental radiographies [41]. The Limit of Detection (LoD) represents the lowest detectable dose that a device can detect. Under the assumption that noise is dominated by dark current shot noise, the LoD value can be defined [42] as the dose of radiation that induces a signal three times higher than the electrical noise (i.e., root mean square of the dark current). We calculated the LoD using the following equation:
FIGURE 3
The LoD is (100 ± 30) nGy s−1 and it is reported in Figure 3B for a sample biased at 20 V.
In Figure 4 the LoD value estimated by these samples is compared with the state of the art for detectors based on organic semiconductors [15,43–48] and perovskites active layers in the form of single crystal [3,4,37,38,49–62] or polycrystalline films [9,10,63–72]. Moreover, in the graph it is highlighted the performances achieved by lead-free materials. The [AgSePh]∞-based detector offers a limit of detection lower than most of the lead-free detectors reported in Figure 4. This result makes this material very promising for possible employment in the medical field where conformable and portable detectors based on low toxic materials able to detect low doses of radiation are required. For instance, typical dose rate used for diagnostics is about 5 μGy s−1 [73].
FIGURE 4
The mechanical flexibility tests of the devices fabricated on PEN substrates are shown in Figure 5. The samples were mounted in the stretching tool depicted in Figure 5A and they were bent gradually at different curvature radii (CR), starting from the flat condition to CR = 0.17 cm (see Figure 5B). The sample was irradiated at each CR and the X-ray induced photocurrent has been measured. In Figure 5C the variation of the photocurrent with respect to that achieved in the flat condition is reported as a function of the curvature radius and it results within 25% for CR > 0.5 cm. At smaller curvature radii, the photocurrent gradually decreases and at the lowest curvature radius CR = 0.17 cm it is about 30% of the initial value. After this fatigue test, the sample was irradiated again in the flat condition and the collected photocurrent totally recovered, suggesting that the photocurrent decrease is due to reversible mechanical factors other than to a permanent damage of the active layer.
FIGURE 5
3 Materials and methods
3.1 Devices fabrication
Metal contact patterning on substrates was performed by thermal evaporation of Cr/Au evaporation (1.5 nm and 35 nm, respectively) on PEN substrates after maskless optical lithography (SU8 photoresist) to pattern interdigitated electrodes. The electrodes were designed to implement a device channel length of 5 or 40 μm with a fixed channel width of 30 mm.
The [AgSePh]∞ nano-crystal (NC) film synthesis started with 200 nm-thick silver films thermally evaporated on PEN substrates with pre-patterned metal contacts. The samples were then exposed to O2 plasma at a pressure of 0.4 mbar with a nominal power of 10 W for 1 min to form AgO. A Diener Electronic Femto Plasma asher was used. Subsequently, the silver oxide films were exposed to a chemical vapor process. Benzeneselenol (97%, Sigma Aldrich) was introduced into a nitrogen glove box in a Teflon-lined 22 mL vial next to the AgO covered substrate. The sealed vial was transferred in a pre-heated oven at 90°C. The reaction yielded [AgSePh]∞ after 4 h. All the samples were rinsed in acetone and then with isopropyl alcohol to remove the unreacted organo-chalcogen reagent and N2 dried in a box, overnight.
3.2 X-ray detection experiment
The samples have been tested as X-ray detectors by monitoring the current flowing in the channel of the device under irradiation cycles. The samples have been electrically connected to a Source Meter Unit (Keithley 2614B) and they have been closed in a shielded metallic box during the measurements to screen them from electromagnetic noise and visible light. During the irradiation tests, the samples have been continuously biased, and the variation of the current has been monitored. As X-ray source, we employed a W-target X-Ray tube kept at 40 kVp (15.2 keV mean energy of the spectrum) and with an anodic current spanning in the range [100–500] µA. The samples have been irradiated by subsequent irradiation cycles (10 s X-ray ON//10s X-ray OFF) at different dose rates (from 6 μGy s−1 up to 1,330 μGy s−1). The photocurrent induced has been calculated as the difference between the current flowing in the sample when the X-Rays are turned ON and the dark current.
3.3 Electrical characterization
Electrical characterization has been performed with a dual channel Keithley 2614B SourceMeter, using triaxial cables (that ensure low noise down to 100 fA and low parasitic capacitance) and custom made Labview software. All measurements are carried out keeping the device in dark in a metal Faraday cage to reduce electrical noise and avoid light-induced photogeneration in the organic semiconductor.
3.4 AFM measurements
AFM measurements: AFM measurements are performed on a Park NX10 system using PPP-NCHR tips (Nanosensors) in non-contact mode and applying adaptive scan-rate to slow down scan speed at crystallite borders. The area scan is 20 μm × 20 µm.
3.5 Bending tests
Mechanical tests have been performed by mounting the samples on a custom stretcher tool. The samples have been kept at different curvature radius (CR = [flat–0.17] cm) while they have been electrically characterized in dark condition and under X-rays.
4 Conclusion
We reported the fabrication and testing of a novel direct X-ray detector based on a quantum confined metal-organic chalcogenide. A nanocrystalline film of silver benzene selenolate [AgSePh]∞ was synthesized on metal contacts and used as the active layer in a planar photodetector configuration. The MOC offers several advantages with respect other materials candidate for direct X-ray detection: 1) it is processable at low temperature onto polymeric and flexible substrate by easily scalable fabrication techniques; 2) it presents a high attenuation fraction thanks to the high-Z elements, avoiding the presence of lead and providing low toxicity level due to the presence of low-toxic elements, highly desirable in medical field; 3) it is shows good shelf-life stability, with only a 10% of X-ray response degradation after 6 months of storage in ambient conditions. We leveraged these unique properties to demonstrate high MOC X-ray detector performances: sensitivity = (180 ± 10) μC Gy−1 cm−2, LoD = (100 ± 30) nGy s−1, radiation hardness up to 100 Gy, and good mechanical stability down to a curvature radius of 5 mm. Our results suggest a new application for an underexplored class of sustainable low-dimensional hybrid material that provides exceptional optoelectronic properties, excellent to be exploited for flexible and large-area X-Ray direct detectors.
Statements
Data availability statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Author contributions
IF: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing–original draft, Writing–review and editing. LM: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing–review and editing. LB: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing–review and editing. AG: Investigation, Writing–review and editing. BP: Investigation, Writing–review and editing. AC: Conceptualization, Software, Writing–review and editing. MC: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing–review and editing. BF: Supervision, Writing–review and editing.
Funding
The authors declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
The authors declared that they were an editorial board member of Frontiers, at the time of submission. This had no impact on the peer review process and the final decision.
Publisher’s note
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Summary
Keywords
direct X-ray detectors, flexible electronics, dosimeters, 2D-like materials, AgSePh
Citation
Fratelli I, Maserati L, Basiricò L, Galeazzi A, Passarella B, Ciavatti A, Caironi M and Fraboni B (2023) Layered metal-organic chalcogenide thin films for flexible and large-area X-ray direct detection. Front. Phys. 11:1325164. doi: 10.3389/fphy.2023.1325164
Received
20 October 2023
Accepted
17 November 2023
Published
30 November 2023
Volume
11 - 2023
Edited by
Fabio Acerbi, Bruno Kessler Foundation (FBK), Italy
Reviewed by
Marco Anni, Università del Salento, Italy
Giovanni Bongiovanni, Università di Cagliari, Italy
Updates
Copyright
© 2023 Fratelli, Maserati, Basiricò, Galeazzi, Passarella, Ciavatti, Caironi and Fraboni.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Ilaria Fratelli, ilaria.fratelli2@unibo.it
Disclaimer
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