Suman Kalyan Mandal
Chowdhury Habibur Rahaman- Ethnopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Botany (DST-FIST and UGC-DRS SAP-II), Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan, India
Livestock is the main backbone of the rural economy of an agriculture-based country like India. To mitigate the economic loss due to livestock’s poor performance and illness, folk phytotherapy for livestock healthcare is still actively practiced in India. Literature survey revealed that the laterite region of eastern India, characterized by its cultural, ethnic, and biological diversities, as well as topographical uniqueness, lacks comprehensive information on ethnoveterinary medicinal knowledge. The objective of the present study includes documentation of traditional knowledge of ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) from the northern laterite region in eastern India. Ethnoveterinary medicinal data were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire, free listing, and focus group discussions. The factor for informants’ consensus (Fic), fidelity level (FL), and cultural value (CV) index have been employed for quantitative analyses. Jaccard index (JI) was used to check the knowledge similarity. Altogether, 1,234 citations were made by 132 participants. In total, 232 recorded ethnomedicinal species are used for preparing 306 remedies to treat 79 health disorders of livestock. Recorded species are distributed in 92 families, and Fabaceae is identified as the most medicinally diversified. Uses of 24 angiospermic taxa, one pteridophyte, and two fungal species were exclusively new to the existing inventory of Indian traditional ethnoveterinary medicine. In 20 disease categories, the informant consensus (Fic) value ranges from 0.4 to 0.83. According to the FL value and use-mention factor, 23 EVM plants have been identified as the most important species in the respective disease categories. Value of CV index highlighted nine species as culturally most significant (CV ≥ 0.0025 and frequency of citation ≥20) in the laterite region of eastern India. A large extent of recorded data are quite worthy for the Indian folk veterinary medicinal repository. A handful of new data reported here and statistically justified culturally most significant species will provide the golden opportunity for bioprospecting research.
1 Introduction
From the beginning of human civilization, the need for animal domestication was realized by the ancient people in every step of their shifted livelihood from hunting to farming. Over the past 11,000 years, varieties of animals have been domesticated by humans for food, secondary products, labor, and companionship (Ahmad et al., 2020; Cucchi and Arbuckle, 2021). Simultaneous developments of traditional healthcare management systems for domesticated animals have been shaped according to the continuous evolution of knowledge, culture, and local biodiversity. Traditional knowledge associated with the healthcare management of livestock is the basis of ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM). It includes people’s understanding, expertise, approach, way of application, and faith. Documentation of this age-old non-codified traditional knowledge for its larger prospects and academic interest has revolved around the wheel of research in ethnobotany that deals with the multidisciplinary approach of people–plant interactions (Gomez-Beloz, 2002). In the last three decades, many scientific articles on ethnoveterinary medicine have been published from different parts of the world (Yineger et al., 2007; Shen et al., 2010; Zia-ud-Din et al., 2010; Aziz et al., 2018; Erarslan and Kültür, 2019; Chakale et al., 2021), indicating the growing interest of the researchers in this field of ethnomedicine.
In India, the tradition of livestock rearing is prehistoric and sacrosanct. To date, livestock plays a vital role in shaping the rural economy by providing livelihood to two-thirds of rural communities, mainly the landless daily laborers, marginal and small-scale farmers, and women (Mutua et al., 2020).
Societal acceptance, emotional attachment, and economic benefit of the domesticated animals lay the foundation of livestock healthcare management in India long before the Vedic age (Somvanshi, 2006). From the very beginning, local biodiversity contributes immensely to India’s folk veterinary medicinal practices. Preparation of databases on ethnoveterinary medicinal knowledge and documentation of related medicinal plants in India are getting priority for its better scientific exploitation, resulting in a vast repository of research and review articles, thesis, and books on this subject (Jain, 1999; Pande et al., 2007; Dey and De, 2010; Galav et al., 2013; Bharali et al., 2015; Khandelwal, 2017). For ethnoveterinary data collection, focuses have been made on a particular ethnic group (Gaur et al., 2010; Kumar et al., 2012; Rajkumari et al., 2014), specific geographical area (Bharati and Sharma, 2010; Lakshminarayana and Rao, 2013; Manoranjotham and Kamaraj, 2016), particular animal group (Das, 2011; Sharma et al., 2012; Shrivastava et al., 2012; Jayakumar et al., 2017), and specific disease or ailment conditions (Mishra, 2013; Chouhan and Ray, 2015).
In West Bengal, a state of eastern India, scientific documentation of medicinal plants and related traditional knowledge has primarily been focused on ethnomedicine of human importance (Rahaman and Saha, 2011; Mondal and Rahaman, 2012; Banerjee et al., 2013; Das and Rahaman, 2014; Chaudhury et al., 2017). Phytotherapeutic knowledge of veterinary importance, traditional practitioners of veterinary medicine, and their role in primary healthcare for veterinary diseases and ailments have been overlooked initially. The documentation of ethnoveterinary medicines in West Bengal started much later, resulting in sporadic and scanty knowledge documentation (Pal, 1980; Mandal and Chauhan, 2000; Ghosh, 2003; Bandyopadhyay and Mukherjee, 2005; Mandal and Rahaman, 2014; Saha et al., 2014). Specifically, few reports on ethnoveterinary medicine have been published from districts such as Bankura, Midnapore, Purulia, Birbhum, and Burdwan, which comprise the laterite region of West Bengal (Mukherjee and Namahata, 1988; Rahaman et al., 2009; Dey and De, 2010; Mandal and Rahaman, 2016). A perusal of literature indicates a potential lack of ethnoveterinary medicinal information in this area.
In the laterite region of West Bengal, a large section of the local people mostly depends on mixed crop cultivation and livestock rearing. In this socio-economic spectrum, livestock plays a definite role in balancing the core economy of this area. Livestock keepers are concerned about the healthcare of their mute animals and mobilize themselves for innovating their ways of keeping these animals healthy.
Government-supported livestock healthcare facilities are provided in the livestock sector but remain inadequate in substantial numbers of field veterinarians, supporting staff, and health centers (NAVS, 2014). This healthcare system mostly focuses on artificial insemination of cattle, vaccination against infectious diseases, their control, and investigation programs (Ahuja et al., 2008). So, in most cases, state government-supported livestock healthcare facilities meagerly fulfill the needs of livestock owners in this region. For alleviating common health issues, folk therapies for treating animals have become obligatory and are actively practiced to date. However, ethnoveterinary medicines (EVM) have limitations in rapidly controlling epidemic infectious diseases and acute life-threatening bacterial infections. Like other folk therapeutic systems, traditional veterinary medicinal knowledge is also persisting as a non-codified system transmitted orally from generation to generation in the laterite region of West Bengal. However, the modernization of the traditional societies with rapid socio-economic, environmental, and technological changes can inevitably cause erosion of this knowledge. This ancient therapeutic knowledge remains mostly unexplored, which needs a thorough scientific study before being lost forever.
In order to add more objectivity to the ethnobiological research, the application of statistical indices for quantifying ethnobotanical data is gradually increased among ethnobotanists worldwide (Andrade-Cetto and Heinrich, 2011; Medeiros et al., 2011). Scientists now prefer ethnobotanical information measured by suitable statistical indices for bioprospecting of natural products as the ethno-guided information or leads provide more success rate than the taxonomy-guided and randomly selected leads (Rahaman, 2017). There are a few research articles on ethnoveterinary medicine published from India, where data have been analyzed using some popular statistical indices such as factor for informants’ consensus (Fic), use value (UV), relative frequency of citation (RFC), and fidelity level (FL) (Kumar et al., 2012; Kumar and Bharati, 2013; Yabesh et al., 2014; Mandal and Rahaman, 2016; Prakash et al., 2021). The formulas of FL, UV, and RFC are mainly based on its use reports and are simple percentage calculations. Nevertheless, how far are these indices relevant to effectively quantify the usefulness of a plant for a specific purpose? Rather they can be considered “statistically insufficient” to assess the true reflection of the cultural importance of a species (Leonti, 2022). In order to evaluate the actual degree of cultural acceptance of a species and its importance as a whole, a much-dedicated quantitative index based on cultural consensus should be included.
In this context, the present work has been opted for the following goals:
• To document the existing vast ethnoveterinary medicinal knowledge from the northern laterite zone in West Bengal,
• To explore the perception and depth of the knowledge among the local people of this area,
• To quantify the ethnobotanical data using suitable statistical indices.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Study Area
The state of West Bengal is located in the far most eastern part of India (22° 59′ 12.325″ N and 87° 51′ 17.914″ E). The laterite zone of West Bengal is characterized by its cultural, ethnic, and biological diversities and topographical uniqueness. It is the extended part of the eastern fringes of the Chota Nagpur plateau, which includes the western and central parts of Bankura district; western parts of Medinipur and Burdwan districts; and western, south-central, and northern parts of Birbhum district (Das, 2014). Laterite region is spanning across the latitude 22°00′ to 24°30′ N and longitude 86°45′ to 87°50′ E, and the altitude varies between 115 and 45 m. It covers an area of approximately 7,700 km2, representing 22.3% of the total geographical area of the state (Hunday and Banerjee, 1967). Soil type is red and lateritic. The climate is “dry sub-humid mega thermal.” The dry deciduous forests in this region represent nearly 15.2% of the total state geographical area. According to the Census of 2011, the percentage of Scheduled Tribes in this zone is 11.85%, and Scheduled cast is 26% (Census of India, 2011).
The study area of the present work is restricted to the northern part of the laterite zone of West Bengal, which includes mainly the western part of Burdwan district and western, south-central, and northern parts of Birbhum district. This part of the laterite region covers an area of approximately 2,290 km2, which represents 29.74% of the total laterite cover of West Bengal. Altogether, 21 blocks have been selected for the present study, 11 from Burdwan district and 10 from Birbhum district, which fall within the northern laterite region of West Bengal (Figure 1). Block is one of many small divisions of a district representing a compact area consisting of several villages.
FIGURE 1. Map of the study area and GPS-guided locations of the participants’ residence in the northern laterite region of West Bengal, India.
2.2 Data Collection
Systematic field surveys were conducted in 21 blocks of the Birbhum and Burdwan districts in different seasons of a year from 2011 to 2018. A total of 132 participants were interviewed with the help of a semi-structured questionnaire, free listing, and focus group discussion after clearly presenting the purpose of the study and its outcome before the participants as per the stipulations of Nagoya Protocol 2014. Prior informed consent (PIC) was taken from each informant verbally before collecting the data on herbal knowledge. For the collection of data, during the field survey here, an attempt has been made to follow the best field practice as critically described earlier (Heinrich and Verpoorte, 2014; Heinrich et al., 2018; Weckerle et al., 2018), as per the code of ethics mentioned by the International Society of Ethnobiology (2006). Various visual stimuli were employed for plant identification and related data collection from the aged, and individuals with restricted movement, and female participants. For this, the fresh and/or dried plants and their parts, herbarium specimens, and photographs of the plants were exhibited to the participants to identify those plants and collection of associated ethnobotanical information (Figure 2). The authenticity of the information has always been confirmed by cross-checking other participants of the same and the other localities with the same set of questions and visual clues (Martin, 1995; Vogl et al., 2004; Thomas et al., 2007). Information on the local name of the plants, their parts use, collection, preservation, mode of preparation of remedy, its administration, and dosages were recorded in detail. The geographic location of the participants’ permanent residence was noted in the form of global positioning system (GPS) coordinates. Their photographs and socio-demographic information were also recorded.
FIGURE 2. Ethnoveterinary data collection and identification of EVMPs: In loco identification of (A) Pueraria tuberosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) DC. and (B) Crinum asiaticum L. (C) Guided tour in a “dry-deciduous forest” of the northern laterite region, West Bengal, India. (D) Use of a twig of Solanum glaucophyllum Desf. as visual stimuli during interaction with one of the aged participants.
2.3 Collection of Plant Specimen and Preparation of Herbarium
Plants having ethnoveterinary medicinal uses were collected following the guideline set by the National Medicinal Plants Board, India (NMPB, 2015). Herbarium specimens have been prepared with the collected plant samples having specific field numbers following the techniques suggested by Jain and Rao (1977). For future reference, all the herbarium specimens have been kept in the departmental Herbarium (Visva-Bharati Herbarium, Department of Botany, Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan, India).
2.4 Identification of the Plant Specimen
The collected angiosperms were identified with the help of different Floras of West Bengal and its adjoining states (Guha Bakshi, 1984; Sanyal, 1994.; Saxena and Brahmam, 1994-1996; BSI, 1997; Paul et al., 2015; Ranjan et al., 2016). The following literature has been consulted to identify the collected species of fungi (Purkayastha and Chandra, 1985; Singer, 1986; Bilgrami et al., 1991) and species of pteridophytes (Dixit, 1984; Fraser-Jenkins, 2008). Besides, herbarium specimens housed at Central National Herbarium (CAL), BSI, Howrah, India, have also been consulted.
Two specialists finally confirmed the identification of the collected plant species after critically examining the voucher specimens.
2.5 Nomenclature Update
The nomenclature of all the collected plant species has been updated following the standard websites such as World Flora Online1, The Plant List2, Tropicos3, and Germplasm Resources Information Network4.
2.6 Data Analysis
2.6.1 Qualitative Analysis of Ethnobotanical Data
Recorded information on the local name of the plant, updated scientific name, family, voucher specimen number, parts used, collection source, mode of preparation of the remedies, and administration with dosages were tabulated systematically.
2.6.2 Quantitative Analysis of Ethnobotanical Data
The following indices are included in this study.
2.6.2.1 Factor for Informants’ Consensus
One of the most widely used indices is the factor for informants’ consensus (Fic), proposed by Heinrich et al. (1998) based on the equation of Informant Agreement Ratio introduced by Trotter and Logan (1986).
For Fic analysis, it is necessary to classify health conditions/illnesses into broad disease categories. The formula of the Fic is
where Nur refers to the number of use-reports for a particular use category/disease category and Nt refers to the number of taxa used for a particular use category/disease category by all participants.
2.6.2.2 Fidelity Level
In order to measure the reliability of the information provided by the participants, the fidelity level (FL) index is used. The value of FL is calculated following the formula:
NP is the number of respondents that claim the use of a plant species to treat a particular disease, and N is the number of respondents that use the plant as a medicine to treat any given disease (Friedman et al., 1986).
A high FL value (100%) is obtained for a plant when all the participants refer to it for the same purposes.
2.6.2.3 Cultural Value Index
The index is employed to understand the overall importance of a plant species in a particular culture (Reyes-García et al., 2006), and it is determined by the following formula:
where s indicates the ethno-species for determining cultural value. The value of the first factor of the index is obtained by dividing the total number of uses reported for the ethno-species s (NUs) by the total number of use categories considered in the study (NC). The second factor of this index does mean the relative frequency of citation (RFC), and it is obtained by dividing the frequency of citation of that particular species (FCs) by the total number of participants interviewed (N). Here, the third factor indicates the cultural importance (CI) of the species s and is calculated based on the sum of all the use reports (UR) for that particular species. Finally, the CV value is obtained by multiplying the values of these three factors.
2.6.2.4 Preference Ranking Exercise
Preference ranking exercise is carried out among the selective key participants to find preferable species out of all the plant species cited by the participants for a specific purpose (Martin, 1995). It is based on a scoring system where points ranging from 0 to 10 are given by each of the selective key participants according to their preference. The highest scoring point (i.e., 10) is given to the most preferred species, but the lowest point is 0, which is assigned to the least preferred species. Based on the total score, all the species are then ranked.
2.6.2.5 Jaccard Index
The similarity of knowledge among the participants is assessed with the help of the Jaccard index (JI) using the following formula:
where a and b are the number of plants known to the participants of areas A and B, respectively, and c is common to both A and B (Hamers, 1989).
2.6.2.6 Spearman Rank-Order Correlation
The Spearman rank-order correlation analysis is performed using R Studio 1.1.442 software to measure the strength and direction of correlation between the variables (Michelson and Schofield, 2002).
3 Results
3.1 Socio-Demography of the Participants
Altogether 132 participants were interviewed, of which 109 persons are male (82.58%) and the remaining 23 participants are female (17.42%). Participants’ socio-demographic information is presented in Supplementary Table S1. All the participants belong to seven categories according to their social designations (Figure 3). GPS coordinates of the participants’ residential location have been indicated in the study area map, which will help future researchers working in the related fields. Besides, it will strengthen the authenticity and intellectual property rights (IPR) of the knowledge providers.
FIGURE 3. Categories of participants and numbers of individuals interviewed in each category (*Others include farmer, herdsman, shepherd, and milkman).
It was observed in the present investigation that, among all the knowledge transmission pathways, “vertical transmission” of knowledge is predominant as in most of the cases (56.06%), the traditional wisdom is conveyed from the parents to their descendants.
With the increase in age, the knowledge domain of the knowledge holder is gradually widened. Here, the knowledge about ethnoveterinary medicinal plants has been compared between the participants belonging to four different age groups employing the percentage of EVM plant knowledge possessed by them (Figure 4). The results show that the participants aged 70 years and above have extensive knowledge as they reported the highest numbers of EVM plants along with their names and uses.
FIGURE 4. Percentage of EVM knowledge distributed in different age groups of the participants.
Altogether five barriers or constraints have been identified that hamper the knowledge transfer among the participants in the area. The most vital barrier is the modernization of the traditional society, which makes the younger generation less interested in their age-old folk therapeutic practices. The second barrier is the unavailability of forest resources. The third one is the cultural and linguistic differences between two persons of different communities. The fourth one is faith in modern medicine. In many cases, the quick healing potentiality of modern medicine attracts local people, and they become accustomed to it. The last constraint here in knowledge transmission is the “secret medicine,” which is kept secret by the knowledge holder. Before his death, the knowledge is carried forward to a reliable family member only.
3.2 Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants
3.2.1 Taxonomical Information
A total of 232 EVMPs have been recorded from the northern laterite part of West Bengal (Supplementary Table S2). All these EVMPs belong to 201 genera and 92 families. Among the recorded plant species, 194 species are of dicotyledonous plants, 33 species belong to monocotyledons, two species, namely, Adiantum philippense subsp. philippense and Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. are of the pteridophyte group, and three species, namely, Amanita vaginata var. alba Gillet, Lycoperdon perlatum Pers., and Termitomyces heimii Natarajan belong to the group of fungi. Among the reported 92 plant families, Fabaceae is represented by the highest number of plant species (21 species). Two families, Malvaceae and Lamiaceae, are represented by ten species each; three families, Apocynaceae, Asteraceae, and Euphorbiaceae, are represented by nine plant species each, and eight species were recorded from the Solanaceae. Each of families Acanthaceae and Convolvulaceae was represented by seven species; family Rubiaceae was represented by six species; and four families (Amaranthaceae, Apiaceae, Moraceae, and Poaceae) were represented by five species each. Three families, Rhamnaceae, Vitaceae, and Zingiberaceae, were represented by four species each, and each of the six families (Araceae, Asparagaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Meliaceae, Menispermaceae, and Piperaceae) was represented by three species. The seventeen families (Anacardiaceae, Combretaceae, Myrtaceae, Phyllanthaceae, Rutaceae, Verbenaceae, etc.) were represented by two species each, whereas only one species represented the remaining 52 families.
3.2.2 Habits
Based on their habits, the recorded 232 plant species have been categorized into four groups, among which herbs dominated the list with 99 species (43%) followed by trees with 51 species (22%), shrubs with 43 species (19%), climbers with 36 species (15%), and fruit body with 3 fungal species (1%).
3.2.3 Collection Sources of the Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants
Among the 232 documented plant species, 199 species have been collected by the local people from wild sources, which indicates the richness of medicinal flora in the wild and confirms local people’s dependence on wild plant resources. Apart from it, 19 species are procured from commercial sources, and 14 species are grown in the cultivated field in the study area.
3.2.4 Plant Parts Used in Ethnoveterinary Medicine
For the preparation of ethnoveterinary medicine, plant parts are generally used in their fresh and dried form. Mainly used plant parts recorded here are underground parts (29.26%) such as root, rhizome, bulb, and tuber (Figure 5).
FIGURE 5. Percentage composition of plant parts used in ethnoveterinary medicine.
3.2.5 Use of Animal Parts, Earth, Minerals, and Other Substances
Different animal parts, organic and inorganic materials, have also been recorded from the study area. Those substances are used to prepare various remedies. Animal body parts and their products, such as bone, tooth, feather, scale, horn, body fats, honey, and fecal matter, are used along with the plant species in preparation for ethnoveterinary medicine. Earth or soil is used in many folk medicines as one of the ingredients. Soils collected from the mouth of crab hole and termite hill are used by the indigenous people here as an additional ingredient in the preparation of many folk veterinary remedies. Minerals have also been recorded here as important ingredients: rock salt, common salt, vermilion, potassium nitrate, iron sulfate, magnesium sulfate, naphthalene, and “Sankhachurna” (powder of Conch shell, a rich source of calcium carbonate). Some organic materials are used here in the form of mustard cake, molasses, jaggery, coconut oil, mustard oil, curd or whey, camphor, sunned rice (Aatop chal), particulate rice (Khud), and “Topchini/Chobchini” (an Ayurvedic product prepared from the dried roots of Chinese Smilax, Smilax china L.).
3.2.6 Forms of Remedies Prepared
Folk herbal remedies used for curing veterinary diseases are prepared and administered in various forms to treat several livestock diseases. Fourteen different forms of remedies have been recorded based on their preparation mode. The most predominant form of remedies prepared is paste (Figure 6). The preparation of paste is a widespread form of remedy preparation in different folk and traditional systems of medicine throughout the world.
FIGURE 6. Percentage of the different forms of ethno-remedies.
FIGURE 7. The graphical abstract presents a summary of the current work highlighting its major facts and findings.
3.2.7 Mode of Administration of a Remedy
Two distinct modes of remedy administration have been recorded. The most common route of remedy administration is oral (62%), and remedies are applied in the forms of paste, juice, powder, decoction, and so on. In 32% of cases, folk preparations were administered externally as a poultice, massage, eye drops, fresh intact part of a plant, and so forth. In very minimum cases (2%), the same remedy was administered internally and externally.
Magico-religious belief in the healing of diseases is a deep-rooted integral part of the ethnic cultures. Herein, parts of 11 plants and seven animal species are used in various ways in performing the 19 cases of magico-religious practices to treat 14 diseased conditions of the domesticated animals.
3.2.8 Livestock Diseases and Diagnostic Symptoms
Totally, 79 types of health disorders that prevailed among the veterinary animals were recorded. It has been noticed that animals in this region suffer mostly from the diseases such as gastrointestinal problems, dysentery, diarrhea, fever, and illness due to poisonous effects. Knowledgeable persons of the studied area, especially a “Go-Vaidya”—traditional healer of livestock diseases—can easily identify the diseased condition by observing the general appearance and behavior of the mute animals. A list of recorded health conditions of the livestock has been provided along with local names of the diseases and their visible or diagnostic symptoms in Supplementary Table S3.
3.2.9 Enumeration of Folk Veterinary Remedies
Altogether, 232 plant species have been recorded to prepare 306 folk remedies to treat 79 types of livestock diseases in the northern laterite region of West Bengal. Out of 306 recorded folk remedies, 184 remedies are of monoherbal types where only one herbal ingredient is used. The number of polyherbal remedies recorded is 110, and it is prepared using more than one herbal ingredient. The indigenous people administer the remaining 12 remedies out of their magico-religious belief in curing certain livestock diseases.
Among the 232 recorded plant species, ten species have frequently been used as one of the ingredients in a minimal amount, along with the principal ingredient in 110 different polyherbal preparations. Those 10 species are Piper nigrum L., Curcuma longa L., Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Piper longum L., Nigella sativa L., Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague, Cuminum cyminum L., Piper cubeba L.f., Ferula assa-foetida L., and Allium sativum L. All the recorded EVMs have been enumerated in a table providing the botanical names of the EVMPs, family, voucher specimen number, common names, their parts used, diseases or health conditions treated, mode of remedy preparation, route of administration, dosages, affected animal, and the number of citations (Table 1).
TABLE 1. Enumeration of the ethnoveterinary medicinal formulations recorded from the northern part of the laterite zone in West Bengal (n = 306). Symbols denote new reports about EVMPs (♠, new EVMPs reported from India; ♥, new in respect of the diseases cured; ▲, new in respect of remedy preparation modes; ♣, new in respect of the plant parts used).
3.3 Quantitative Analysis of the Recorded Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Data
A total of 1,234 citations were made by the 132 participants. All the recorded 79 health issues are grouped into 20 disease categories based on the emic perception of the participants as consulted during focus group discussion.
Fic value was determined for all the 20 diseases categories, ranging from 0.4 to 0.83 (Table 2). Among the recorded disease categories, six categories such as skeletal disorders, helminthiasis, urinary disorders, poisonous effect, retention of milk, and enteric diseases showed very high Fic value (≥0.8); that is, the value is significantly closer to 1, which means there is a greater consensus among the participants. Eleven disease categories were found to have moderate Fic value (≥0.6 to ˂0.8). Moreover, three disease categories such as rheumatic disorder (0.57), ophthalmic disorder (0.53), and general health weakness (0.4), have scored low Fic value (<0.6).
TABLE 2. Factor for informant’s consensus (Fic) value of the 20 disease categories and the most reliable ethnoveterinary medicinal plants (EVMPs) recorded in each disease category.
The fidelity level or FL values have been determined for all the recorded species used in those 20 diseases categories. Among the recorded plant species, only 23 EVM plants have been identified here as the most important species in the respective disease condition according to their FL value (Table 2).
Further, 68 EVMPs have been considered, which were cited by at least 5% of the participants (FC ≤ 7) for further ranking after comparing the numerical values of frequency of citation (FC), use reports (UR), and the number of uses (NU) and based on the score of CV index (Table 3). After careful comparison of all the values estimated for the 68 plant species, nine species have been considered as culturally most valuable (CV ≥ 0.0025 and frequency of citation ≥20) in the northern laterite region of West Bengal. Those nine plants are Curcuma longa L., Achyranthes aspera L., Abrus precatorius L., Amaranthus spinosus L., Azadirachta indica A.Juss., Cissus quadrangularis L., Pueraria tuberosa (Willd.) DC., Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees, and Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) Stapf.
TABLE 3. Ranking of the useful EVMPs (n = 68) on the basis of the cultural value (CV) index.
The Spearman rank-order Correlation analysis has been performed taking the cultural value (CV) index and three basic values of frequency of citation (FC), use report (UR), and use diversity (NU) as variables to check the dependency of one upon another (Table 4). The result expressed very significant correlations among all the variables at p < 0.05. The analysis highlighted that the CV index is highly dependent on the value of FC and UR (correlation coefficient > 0.9, which is near to 1). Therefore, the versatile uses of a plant species and its familiarity among the participants of a particular area significantly influence the CV index, which reflects the overall importance of the plant species in the culture.
TABLE 4. Spearman rank-order correlations among the variables.
Analysis of the descriptive statistics has revealed that the values of mean (M) and standard deviation are very low in the CV index (M = 0.00044, SD = 0.00147), which indicates the accuracy of estimating the overall cultural importance of a species by this index.
Ten species out of 232 recorded plant species have frequently been used as minor ingredients in 110 different polyherbal preparations along with their respective principal ingredients. Those 10 species are Piper nigrum L., Curcuma longa L., Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Piper longum L., Nigella sativa L., Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague, Cuminum cyminum L., Piper cubeba L.f., Ferula assa-foetida L., and Allium sativum L. Ranking of preferred species has been made on the basis of scores given to the species considering the use-preference of the ten key participants. The list of most preferred herbal ingredients is presented in Table 5. Piper nigrum L. was ranked in the first position with the highest score of 86 out of 100, which revealed that the fruit of this plant is the most preferred ingredient used in polyherbal preparations by the participants of the studied area. The popularity of this plant is assumed easily by observing the value of frequency of citation (FC = 62) and use value (UV = 0.462), which are the highest among the values of these two parameters for all the recorded medicinal species in the studied area.
TABLE 5. Preference ranking exercise with 10 plant species used as additional ingredients in the polyherbal ethnoveterinary medicines. Here 10 key participants labeled from A to J (average age = 65 ± 10 years).
A total of 68 participants from the Birbhum district and 64 from the Burdwan district participated in the present study. The knowledge similarity between the participants of these two adjacent districts of the studied area has been analyzed employing the Jaccard index (JI). Among the recorded 232 EVMPs, uses of 139 plants were known to the participants from the Burdwan district, and uses of 202 plants were recorded from the participants of the Birbhum district. It has also been observed that uses of 108 EVMPs are common for both districts. The result of JI revealed that, across the 232 plant species, knowledge similarity reaches up to 46.35%, which is quite high as expected because both the districts are adjoining to each other and share similar environmental conditions, ethnic compositions, cultural values, and forest types. Another possible cause for such a high percentage of knowledge similarity is the cross-cultural exchange of EVM knowledge among the inhabitants of these two neighboring districts.
4. Discussion
4.1 Is Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Knowledge Depends on the Informant’s Age, Gender, Education, and Knowledge Gathering Pattern?
The involvement of participants indicates gender biases in the present study. However, most of the earlier workers have also experienced a similar type of a male dominating informant composition in their ethnomedicinal explorations carried out in different parts of the world (Hassan et al., 2017; Aziz et al., 2018). In the studied area, the role of women was found restricted mainly in assisting livestock rearing and dairying. Male participants of the study area have much more knowledge about traditional livestock healthcare than the female participants.
The expertise in folk therapy does not depend on the formal education and literacy of the participants but on their keen observation, deep interest, and analytical attitude toward traditional knowledge. Dissemination and gathering of the knowledge occur verbally, and the proficiency of an informant depends on their perception of knowledge and accuracy of practicing the same. In many cases, it has been noticed that the persons with no formal education are much more knowledgeable about folk therapy than the literate ones (Hayta et al., 2014; Umair et al., 2017).
Ninety-one participants interviewed were above 50 years with a minimum of 25 years of experience in livestock healthcare management. They have contributed the maximum number of information (281 formulations, 87%) about the uses of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants. The experience is increased by acquiring knowledge from different sources with an increase in age (Ayantunde et al., 2008). A similar type of scenario has been noticed in many of the ethnobotanical studies carried out earlier by other workers (Piluzza et al., 2015; Bullitta et al., 2018). It is a serious concern that the younger generation of the indigenous community of the northern laterite region of West Bengal is less interested in their age-old therapeutic practices and the traditional knowledge. The gradual inclination toward modern lifestyle, growing faith in allopathic medicine, modern education, and several other cultural changes within the traditional community profoundly influence the younger generation to throw away their forefathers’ culture, which put the age-old knowledge system on the verge of extinction (Cox, 2000).
In the present investigation, the rate of vertical transmission of knowledge is quite higher than the horizontal and oblique ones. In traditional societies, there is a common belief that the religious trust in medicine and its secrecy maintains the purity and supremacy of folk remedies (Giday et al., 2009). Such a kind of social belief restricts the knowledge transmission mainly within the family members. It is identified as one of the main causes of the highest percentage of vertical transmission of ethnomedicinal knowledge in the study area.
4.2 Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plant Resource and Knowledge Richness
Recorded 232 EVMPs extend the previously documented EVMPs list to 315 in the state of West Bengal, which indicates the richness of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants and its associated traditional veterinary knowledge among the local people in the study area (Jain and Dey, 1966; Pal, 1980; Pal, 1981; Mukherjee and Namahata, 1988; Pal, 1992; Ghosh, 1999; Ghosh, 2002; Ghosh, 2003; Bandyopadhyay and Mukherjee, 2005; Mitra and Mukherjee, 2007; Ghosh, 2008; Das and Tripathi, 2009; Rahaman et al., 2009; Dey and De, 2010; Pandit, 2010; Saha et al., 2010; Ghosh, 2011; Saha et al., 2014). Besides West Bengal, a total number of EVMPs has been estimated from the other parts of India. From the state of Gujarat, 265 plant species of veterinary importance were documented a few years back (Katewa et al., 2010). A total of 294 EVMPs have been reported from the states of North-East India (Sharma, 2012). In a recent review, about 449 EVMPs have been reported from the Indo-Gangetic region (Sikarwar, 2017). It is interesting to mention that, among the total number of veterinary plant taxa recorded from the Indo-Gangetic part of India, 129 EVMPs were common in the present study.
In many ethnobotanical studies, the family Fabaceae has been identified as the richest in medicinal flora among the plant families (Leonti et al., 2003; Molares and Ladio, 2009). A variety of biologically active phyto-constituents from different biochemical groups, such as tannins, flavonoids, alkaloids, and terpenes, have so far been reported from different medicinal species of this family, which largely influence their effective use in global folk medicine (Leonti et al., 2002). In the present study, the medicinal use of the highest number of leguminous species also conforms to the diversified therapeutic potentialities of this plant family Fabaceae.
Among the recorded plant taxa, most species are of herbaceous type (43%). The use of the herbs in the highest number in remedy preparation is their abundant growth and easy availability in the locality. It is a fact that humans would prefer to search for food and medicinal plants, which are most abundant, easy to access, and available all around the year (Albuquerque et al., 2005). For these reasons, herbaceous plants have occupied a considerable percentage among the medicinal plants used in almost all the traditional systems of medicine including ethnomedicine in the world (Disler et al., 2014; Eshetu et al., 2015; Parthiban et al., 2016).
Folk medicinal practices are based mainly on wild-growing plants, and this tradition of using local wild plants is still enduring in most ethnic cultures. The present investigation has also witnessed that most of the EVM species (86.15% of the total recorded species) were collected from wild sources, confirming the local people’s dependence on mostly the plants growing in the wild.
Herein, the recorded main plant parts used for remedy preparation are the underground parts. Most of the ethnobotanical explorations carried out in different parts of the world exhibited that roots and underground parts of the plants are used as medicine in the highest or considerable percentage (Mall, 2009; Agrawal, 2013). Roots and other underground parts have been identified as the major sites where many of the bioactive compounds are synthesized and accumulated, further highlighting the scientific basis of these folk herbal practices of using underground parts of the plants (Flores and Flores, 1997; Bais et al., 2001). Most of the time, it has been informed that the collection of underground parts destroys the plant. Such an unsustainable collection practice resulted in the reduction or depletion of the local phytodiversity (Kimondo et al., 2015). Therefore, excessive collection of underground plant parts can cause a threatful impact on local biodiversity.
The present study witnessed the use of a significant percentage (36% of total remedies recorded) of polyherbal recipes. It is justified because active principles present in different herbal ingredients of a polyherbal recipe exert better therapeutic thrust through their synergistic effect (Amodu et al., 2013; Malik et al., 2017). Therefore, the uses of such polyherbal remedies involving diversified medicinal plants for cattle health indicate the depth and width of the knowledge regarding traditional healthcare for the veterinary animals in the area.
In case of external or topical application, the paste is mainly used as poultice because it is comparatively convenient to apply to the exterior of the affected body part of the veterinary animals. Besides, it is effortless to administer the paste with the animals’ feed orally. It has been noticed that the administration of paste for the treatment of various health disorders of both humans and livestock is a common practice in traditional medicines throughout the world (Giday et al., 2010; Vijayakumar et al., 2016). The probable cause for applying paste in a higher percentage is that paste is prepared easily within a short time by a simple method using convenient and small tools.
Like the present study, most of the cases of oral administrations of folk preparation have been encountered in several earlier studies (Jorim et al., 2012; Aziz et al., 2018). Side by side topical application of folk remedies remains an important mode of drug administration to treat diseases, such as skin disorders, wounds, rheumatic pain, and body pain (Sargin et al., 2013; Tariq et al., 2016). Specifically, topical use of poultice increases blood circulation in the affected portions of the body. It also protects the infected wounds or sores from microbial infection again by providing a protective cover to the affected parts in the form of a medicated layer of drug substances. Moreover, many healing substances of the medicinal herbs present in a poultice (such as antiseptic essential oils, phenolics, and tannins) infiltrate through animal tissues, helping it fight against infection and reduce inflammation. Finally, healing of the wound is promoted.
4.3 Magico-Religious Healing
Superstition and magico-religious belief are very much integrated with the life, culture, and health of the ethnic people worldwide (Ahirwar, 2015; Pangging et al., 2018). Like other tribal or ethnic communities, indigenous people of the present study area have a strong faith in magico-religious practices performed to cure and diagnose certain diseases of their domesticated animals. They believe that certain diseases in veterinary animals are caused by the bad influences of evil spirits or some supernatural powers. They treat those sick animals by holy chanting, performing special rituals, and offering prayers and sacrifices to appease the suspected evil power by which, according to their belief, certain disease conditions are developed.
4.4 New Uses
After thoroughly checking the relevant books and research articles on ethnoveterinary medicine published from India, 68 EVMPs are found new in several aspects of the existing inventory of Indian ethnoveterinary medicine (Table 1 and Supplementary Table S4). The ethnoveterinary uses of 24 plant species documented in this investigation are exclusively new for India as they have not been reported in the standard literature consulted (Pal and Jain, 1998; Jain, 1999; Ghosh, 2003; Rahaman et al., 2009; Katewa et al., 2010; Jain, 2012; Kumar et al., 2012; Saha et al., 2014; Jain and Jain, 2016; Sikarwar, 2017). The 24 EVM plants identified as new for their uses are Abutilon hirtum (Lam.) Sweet, Aerva javanica (Burm.f.) Juss. ex Schult., Albizia procera (Roxb.) Benth., Coleus strobilifer (Roxb.) A.J.Paton, Cajanus goensis Dalzell, Breynia vitis-idaea (Burm.f.) C.E.C.Fisch., Caladium bicolor (Aiton) Vent., Centipeda minima (L.) A.Braun & Asch., Cotula anthemoides Lour., Croton persimilis Müll.Arg., Eulophia explanata Lindl., Hydrolea zeylanica (L.) Vahl, Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet, Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker Gawl., Jatropha nana Dalzell & A.Gibson, Phoenix acaulis Roxb., Phyllodium pulchellum (L.) Desv., Piper cubeba L.f., Rotheca serrata (L.) Steane & Mabb., Seseli diffusum (Roxb. ex Sm.) Santapau & Wagh, Tacca leontopetaloides (L.) Kuntze, Uraria lagopoides (L.) DC., Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm., and Ludwigia adscendens (L.) H.Hara.
It has been noticed that 31 recorded taxa reported earlier as EVMPs are found new in respect of the diseases cured by them. The plant Alangium salviifolium (L.f.) Wangerin was reported earlier for the treatment of cattle suffering from cough, liver trouble, and poisonous bite (Jain, 1999; Galav et al., 2013), but the same plant was recorded here for the use in curing general weakness.
Five investigated taxa of the present work differ in respect of remedy preparation modes with the earlier reports made by different workers, although those five plants are used for curing similar types of diseases such as fever, wound, mastitis, arthritis, and dysentery. For example, leaf of Nicotiana rustica L. is solely used as a germicide to heal cattle wounds (Jain, 1999). However, the leaf of it is administered here topically as paste along with mustard oil and “Sankhachurna” (a rich source of calcium carbonate) for the same purpose. Again, four EVMPs have been found new regarding their parts used. For example, leaves of Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet have been reported earlier for eye problems (Jain, 1999), but here, for the same purpose, using the root of the same plant is exclusively a new report. Apart from the new uses of angiospermic taxa, ethnoveterinary medicinal uses of Pteridophytes such as Adiantum philippense subsp. philippense is reported first time here as EVMPs from India. On the contrary, the use of Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. root is very much new in respect of treating livestock diseases such as fever of goat (Jain, 1999; Katewa et al., 2010; Jain, 2012; Sikarwar, 2017).
Three fungal species such as Amanita vaginata var. alba Gillet, Lycoperdon perlatum Pers., and Termitomyces heimii Natarajan have been recorded as ethnoveterinary medicine used by the local traditional healers in the northern laterite region of West Bengal. Among these three fungal species, medicinal uses of Amanita vaginata var. alba Gillet and Termitomyces heimii Natarajan for curing veterinary diseases are exclusively the new addition to the existing database on ethnoveterinary medicine of India (Jain, 1999; Katewa et al., 2010; Jain, 2012; Jain and Jain, 2016).
The present study contributes 68 new medicinal claims, which is substantial and certainly enriches the existing inventories on ethnoveterinary medicine of India. Thus, the present investigation unveils the knowledge diversity of veterinary medicine in the study area and gives a clear indication regarding further studies exploring more novel information from the area after interacting with the traditional specialist healers of livestock diseases. All the new claims of EVMPs recorded here should scientifically be validated to develop bioactive compounds, and effective veterinary drugs have to be standardized after their toxicity assessment.
4.5 Informant Consensus and Cultural Value of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants
Fic value (above 0.7) suggest a high consensus among the participants regarding the uses of large numbers of EVMPs in disease categories such as gastrointestinal disorders, poisonous effect, enteric diseases, fever, and related problems. All these livestock health problems are prevalent in the studied area, and local peoples’ understanding and perception of these health issues make them experts in disease diagnosis and prescribing effective folk remedies.
Fic is assigned to measure the consensus of participants regarding plant uses in a particular disease category, whereas the determination of the fidelity level (FL) helps to identify the most effective plant species cited for that particular disease category. Though sometimes, the FL value misleads in data interpretation when attaining a maximum score with few citations for one or two purposes. On the contrary, a species with multiple uses may show a lower FL value with more citations for a particular purpose. Therefore, it does not indicate that a plant with a higher fidelity percentage may have a maximal citation number. For this reason, in the present study, along with the FL value, the number of use mentions for a plant species made by all participants has been considered to recognize the most reliable species used in a disease category (Andrade-Cetto and Heinrich, 2011). A total of 23 species have been identified here as the most important medicinal plants whose FL value and citation number are higher than the other recorded plant species.
Among the frequently cited 68 EVM plant species, nine plants have been identified as the most valuable ones in the culture of the studied area, which indicate that the knowledge about uses of those nine plants is well distributed among the people of the area because of their higher frequency of citations as well as multipurpose uses, which are the basic components of the CV index.
The resulting value of the CV index is extracted from the cumulative effort of all the factors such as total number of use reports, total number of use categories, citation frequency, and the total number of participants interviewed. Therefore, the use of the CV index for assessing the cultural importance of a species is much more accurate than the individual application of indices such as UV, FL, or RFC, which are not independent of each other and function more or less similarly (Dudney et al., 2015). Thus, the scientific community should consider the CV index as an effective tool for assessing the overall cultural value of a species.
4.6 Conservation Facets
Quantitative analysis of ethnobotanical data not only helps identify the most important plant species but also provides information about those most frequently exploited plant species in a particular area, which will help frame a strategy for the conservation of those exploited plants. Among the important plants, some species that have been cited in a very high frequency are naturally facing a high collection pressure because of their use in more significant amounts than the other important species with lower citation frequency. Such species with the high use demand identified here are Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees, Aristolochia indica L., Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) A. Juss., Madhuca longifolia (J.Koenig ex L.) J.F.Macbr., Asparagus racemosus Willd., Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. ex D.Don, Semecarpus anacardium L.f., Casearia tomentosa Roxb., Barleria prionitis L., and Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd. It is assumed that these species might face certain degrees of population decline shortly due to their excessive collection from the wild. Many other factors, such as unsustainable harvest of the bark (ring barking), underground part (uprooting of the whole plant), seed or fruit (indiscriminate collection), and habitat destruction, are also found responsible for the population decline of those most exploited plant species in the area. This fact has already been reflected in some phyto-sociological studies carried out in different forest areas of the northern laterite region of West Bengal, where very low populations of many of those above-mentioned plants were encountered (Joshi, 2012; Bauri et al., 2013; Bhattacharya and Mukherjee, 2013; Bouri et al., 2014; Pradhan and Rahaman, 2015; Ganguli et al., 2016). All those plants frequently used in the study area should get priority for their immediate conservation. In doing this, a separate research program has to be undertaken to identify the most prioritized species in the northern laterite part of West Bengal employing the well-devised dedicated statistical index like conservation priority index (CPI) or local conservation priority index (LCPI) (Oliveira et al., 2007; Lucena et al., 2013). In the present investigation, only the indication has been made toward population decline and collection pressure of the most frequently used medicinal plants in this region so that the researchers in the future can pursue their research activity in this direction.
4.7 Ethnopharmacological Rationalization of Most Important Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants
The detailed phytochemical and pharmacological screenings of the identified nine most valuable EVMPs should be prioritized for developing new bio-active constituents. Many of those nine culturally important plants have been screened earlier for their phytochemical and pharmacological properties. In many cases, pharmacological evidence of the earlier works validates the ethnomedicinal claims associated with those culturally important plants. Amaranthus spinosus L. is prescribed for treatment of delay in parturition, body ache, fever, hemorrhagic septicemia, and retention of milk and validated by earlier pharmacological studies for its antispasmodic (Chaudhary et al., 2012), antimicrobial (Sheeba et al., 2013), antioxidant, and antipyretic (Kumar B. S. A. et al., 2010) properties. This plant has not yet been examined for its galactagogue activity, which needs a thorough investigation to justify its traditional use as an enhancer of milk secretion in cows.
Pharmacological investigations on the anti-osteoporotic and anti-inflammatory activities of Cissus quadrangularis L. substantiate the scientific basis of using this plant to treat fractured bone and swelling wart (Kumar M. et al., 2010; Nalini et al., 2011; Stohs and Ray, 2013). Nevertheless, no scientific validation has been made for its anthelmintic property recorded in the present investigation.
The uses of Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) Stapf. in liver trouble and unusual urination of the cattle recorded here need detailed phytochemical and pharmacological studies for its validation of hepatoprotective and diuretic properties as this medicinal plant has not been screened in such directions before (Natarajan and Dhas, 2013; Chaudhuri and Chakraborty, 2017).
In case of Pueraria tuberose (Willd.) DC., the tuber of it is used by the local people to treat helminthiasis and poor lactation. Many biological activities of Pueraria tuber have already been examined by different groups of scientists from various parts of the world, but no pharmacological investigations are made on its veterinary anthelmintic property (Hinsch et al., 2000; Saha et al., 2012; Chauhan et al., 2013).
Therefore, from this discussion, it is understood that these nine plants are culturally important and provide some important clues, enabling the scientists to undertake a scientific investigation for evaluating their phytochemical and pharmacological profiles.
4.8 Scientific Justification of Using Preferred Additional Ingredients
Preference ranking exercise of the additional ingredients used in polyherbal preparations revealed that ingredients such as fruits of Piper nigrum L. and Piper longum L., rhizomes of Curcuma longa L. and Zingiber officinale Roscoe, and seeds of Nigella sativa L. are the most popular among the participants of the studied area. There is a long tradition of using peppers (both black and long peppers) and ginger in many folk remedies. Scientific attempts have been made to justify the reason for using these herbal ingredients in traditional medicine. Through experiments, it has been established that the fruits of Piper nigrum L. and Piper longum L. contain piperine alkaloid, which increases the bioavailability of active principles present in a drug preparation (Patil et al., 2011). Scientists have suggested two possible mechanisms in this regard. Piperine may promote rapid absorption of drugs and nutrients through the intestine, and it also inhibits the activities of enzymes involved in the enzymatic breakdown of drugs (Ajazuddin et al., 2014). In the present investigation, Piper longum L. is used as an additional ingredient of a polyherbal formulation prepared with Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm., Zingiber officinale Roscoe, and Piper cubeba L.f. to treat post-partum weakness. The use of Piper longum L. as a bioenhancer has already been established in a scientific study where it showed that the antiasthmatic effect of vasaka (Adhatoda vasica Nees) is increased when long pepper is added to it (Randhawa et al., 2011). Likewise, the traditional use of Curcuma longa L. in ethnomedicine has scientifically been justified through several studies where curcumin, its bioactive compound, has been established as a potent natural bioenhancer (Zhang et al., 2007; Pavithra et al., 2009; Yan et al., 2010). Besides its wide range of pharmacological efficacy, ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) acts as an effective bioenhancer in promoting absorption of active phyto-constituents of the drug through the intestine (Qazi et al., 2003). Luteolin present in Cuminum cyminum L. exhibits its bioenhancing activity by inhibiting the activity of permeability glycoprotein (P-gp) present in the intestinal epithelium (Boumendjel et al., 2002). In a recent finding, it has been observed that active constituents of Nigella sativa L. interact with the co-administered drugs and enhance intestinal availability of the compounds present in the drugs (Ali et al., 2012). Therefore, the uses of all those herbal ingredients in polyherbal recipes as additional ingredients indicate that folk healers of the studied area have more excellent knowledge about different combinations of herbal ingredients in a traditional recipe, which helps enhance the effectiveness of the folk preparations.
4.9 Local Peoples’ Perception of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Knowledge System and Its Resilience
EVM system is as old as the history of animal domestication, which is continuously being shaped and reshaped by trials and errors of using local biodiversity to maintain resilience. The resilience of the local EVM knowledge system depends on the utilization pattern of phytoresources and the knowledge transmission character (Santoro et al., 2015).
The present study witnessed some of the features of local EVM knowledge system which can play a crucial role in maintaining resilience such as men are much knowledgeable in practicing and applying EVM, most knowledgeable aged participants still possess substantial information of this therapeutic system, apart from the traditional expert practitioners of livestock diseases, a large number of participants have adequate EVM knowledge, and vertical transmission of knowledge is predominant. Local people of the laterite region of West Bengal depend mainly on cultivation and livestock rearing for their livelihood and by any sort of default the livestock population may decrease which creates a great bearing on their economy. For this reason people in the study area have been concerned to their livestock health care since ancient time and have been developed a well organized system of veterinary animal health care through regular incorporation of more and more newly innovated healing options for so many of ailments and diseases. A good number of EVM species have been used for single purpose (for example, 46 species of plants are used for gastro-intestinal problems of livestock) which is a good indicator of resilience of knowledge in the studied area because EVM system here does have a wide range of options for treatment of a particular disease, without being hampered due to unavailability of one or few drug plant resources.
5 Conclusion
The present study embodies a quite large extent of documented knowledge about 306 folk veterinary remedies which are worthy for its inclusion in the inventories on folk veterinary medicine and ethnomedicinal resources of the state and national level (Figure 7).
The uses of 68 EVMPs are new to the existing Indian ethnoveterinary pharmacopeia, which highlights the knowledge diversity and unknown knowledge on veterinary medicine in the surveyed area. Such new information create a golden opportunity in the field of bioprospecting research by providing the ethno-guided clues to the scientists for scientific validation, standardization, and safety evaluation of those plant species before their recommendation as ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM). Moreover, nine EVMPs have been identified as the most important species, which can also be considered statistically justified good candidates for their ethno-guided bioprospection in the future. The collaborative efforts of traditional and modern knowledge are needed here to develop new efficacious drugs for livestock diseases with minimum or zero side effects.
The present investigation highlights some basic concern about conservation status and collection pressure of those important ethno-species used most frequently in the area. To prioritize the most exploited species for conservation in the area, along with collection pressure faced by each species, other factors like, degree of access and population dynamics of each of the important species are to be considered.
The strength of the EVM system identified in the region is its knowledge diversity (recorded remedies 306) and diversity of associated drug resources including phytoresources (plant species recorded 232). The system is practiced among the local people in the area very actively with a good number of optional drug species assigned to the healing purposes of many common diseases. These characteristics of the EV knowledge articulate its vitality and also the flexibility of its many of the knowledge spheres. Knowledge transmission is operated here predominantly through vertical route that is also an indication of resilience of the EVM system. Besides, the greater part of this vast knowledge trove is confined to the aged people domain, not to the younger generation in the society of this area. This is a very alarming concern identified in the context of sustainability of EVM knowledge system in the northern laterite region of West Bengal, India.
Data Availability Statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.
Ethics Statement
There are no strict codes or rules to conduct ethnobiological research in India. The purpose and outcome of the present study have been explained in detail to the participants before their active engagement in the study. Participation of each participant was voluntary. For ethnobotanical data collection, Prior Informed Consent (PIC) was taken from each of the participants before interviewing them, following the decorum of Article 8(j) of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Written informed consent was obtained from the individual(s) and minor(s)’ legal guardian/next of kin for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article. Resulted data will be included online at Shodhganga (https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/), a digital repository of research content maintained by University Grant Commission, India.
Author Contributions
SKM and CHR designed the work. SKM conducted the field survey, collected ethnomedicinal data, and analyzed the data. SKM and CHR wrote the manuscript, checked critically, and finalized the draft.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Publisher’s Note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations or those of the publisher, the editors, and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
Acknowledgments
We thank the Department of Botany (DST-FIST and UGC-DRS SAP-II supported), Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan-731235, West Bengal, India for necessary facilities and administrative support. We are grateful to Retired professor Gour Gopal Maiti, Department of Botany, University of Kalyani, India, and Dr. Dulal Chandra Pal, Retired Scientist, Botanical Survey of India, for their immense help in identification of some of the collected voucher specimens. We acknowledge the guidance of Dr. Arindom Chakraborty, Department of Statistics, Visva-Bharati University, for the Spearman rank-order correlation analysis. We express our heartiest thanks to all the participants of the study area for offering their valuable time and sharing their traditional knowledge.
Supplementary Material
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphar.2022.861577/full#supplementary-material
Footnotes
1http://www.worldfloraonline.org retrieved on 10.02.2022.
2http://www.theplantlist.org/retrieved on 05.01.2022.
3http://www.tropicos.org/retrieved on 26.08.2021.
4http://www.ars-grin.gov retrieved on 18.09.2021.
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Keywords: ethnoveterinary medicine, livestock disease, quantitative ethnobotany, cultural value, Eastern India
Citation: Mandal SK and Rahaman CH (2022) Inventorization and Consensus Analysis of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Knowledge Among the Local People in Eastern India: Perception, Cultural Significance, and Resilience. Front. Pharmacol. 13:861577. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2022.861577
Received: 24 January 2022; Accepted: 02 March 2022;
Published: 29 April 2022.
Edited by:
Michael Heinrich, University College London, United KingdomReviewed by:
Manzoor Ullah, University of Science and Technology, PakistanSaravanan Vivekanandarajah, KnowledgeLink Group Inc., United States
Chellappandian Muthiah, V. O. Chidambaram College, India
Adeyemi Oladapo Aremu, North-West University, South Africa
Şükran Kültür, Istanbul University, Turkey
Christian R. Vogl, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Austria
Copyright © 2022 Mandal and Rahaman. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Suman Kalyan Mandal, skmandal.vb@gmail.com; Chowdhury Habibur Rahaman, habibur_cr@visva-bharati.ac.in