Abstract
Increasing penetration of wind power with intermittency and variability threatens the stability of the power system frequency. The fast response capability of the energy storage system (ESS) makes it an effective measure to improve frequency regulation performance. However, designing an optimal control for numerous energy storage units (ESUs) with different power and energy characteristics is challenging. To solve the dilemma that the distributed control methods cannot achieve optimality over time horizons while the centralized optimization methods would cause high computational burdens, a bi-layer optimal control approach is proposed in this study. In the upper layer, a multi-area secondary frequency control (SFC) problem is established to determine control policies for ESS clusters under continuous wind power fluctuations and is solved by the Itô theory-based stochastic optimization (ITB-SO) method with high computational efficiency in a rolling-horizon manner. In the lower layer, the power output of ESUs is dispatched and coordinated using the distributed algorithm (DA) method via communication networks, considering different characteristics and the current state-of-charge (SoC) levels. Simulation studies carried out in a dual-region test system evidence the improvement of system frequency stability by compensating for rapid wind power fluctuations immediately via ESSs. The results show that the proposed ITB-SO method without scenario generation is suitable for real-time SFC for the ESS. The effectiveness of the DA method and its robustness in encountering loss of communication links are also verified.
1 Introduction
In the past few decades, the penetration of renewable energy sources (RES) has been increasing rapidly. At the end of 2020, the RES capacity, including wind power and photovoltaic power generation, was 1300GW, accounting for 9.4% of the total installed power generation capacity in the world (Khan et al., 2021). The increasing RES penetration level in the interconnected power grids results in a decrease in the system inertia (Meegahapola and Flynn, 2010). For example, the wind turbine generators are decoupled from the system frequency by converters, so they cannot provide frequency regulation support for a long time (Tsili and Papathanassiou, 2009). Severer frequency fluctuations would happen in the areas with low system inertia than others in the interconnected power systems (Miller et al., 2011). Meanwhile, the intermittency and variability nature of RES power generation would lead to continuous power imbalances and system frequency deviations (Bidram and Davoudi, 2012). Therefore, the increasing integration of RES will inevitably bring challenges to the stability of system frequency.
Exploiting energy storage systems (ESSs) for maintaining frequency stability of the systems with high penetration levels of the RES has recently attracted attention both in industry and academia. In recent years, the application of the ESS is gradually becoming widespread. In 2021, the rated power of installed ESS was 173.7GW, and 1,363 ESS projects were operational globally (U.S.DOE, 2021). The ESS has higher ramping and faster response capability than conventional generators, so better dynamic tracking performance is available for frequency regulation control. Since the traditional automatic generation control (AGC) signal is unsuitable for ESSs with limited energy capacity, filtering mechanisms are developed to extract fast-moving and high-frequency components of the AGC signal for the ESS to participate in SFC (Cheng et al., 2014). Meanwhile, the management of state-of-charge (SoC) for ESS during frequency regulation is important as well. It needs to prevent the second frequency drop issue due to sudden withdrawals of some ESSs. Karrari et al. (2020) propose an SoC recovery mechanism for flywheel ESS so that the residual energy capacity is always in the optimal state. Garcia-Torres et al. (2021) apply the stochastic optimization (SO) method considering the management SoC level and address the prediction uncertainties of RES.
In order to further exploit the complementary advantages of different types of ESSs in terms of rated power and energy capacity, hybrid ESSs are developed and utilized in frequency regulation. The main ESS types, including batteries (Li-ion, Pb-Acid), flywheels, and supercapacitors, possess different power-to-energy ratio characteristics. Jan et al. (2020) used a fuzzy PI controller for ESSs to cater to the frequency variations adaptively. Shim et al. (2018) proposed droop control with the SoC feedback to improve their frequency response and regulation services to the grid. However, the control strategies in these studies are separate and independent, which means different ESSs cannot be coordinated, and hence unnecessary mutual regulation and waste of resources would be caused. Esmaili et al. (2013) decomposed the power signal into fast/slow components to allocate responsibility for hybrid ESSs. Oshnoei et al. (2020) adopted the model predictive control method to determine an ESS control scheme with various characteristics, which is robust to uncertain disturbances. Nevertheless, these centralized ways are sensitive to noise and communication failure (Zhao and Ding, 2018b). On the contrary, the distributed realizations relying on local and neighboring information can reduce computation time and take advantage of local intelligent agents (Anderson et al., 2021).
Distributed methods such as the consensus algorithm are widely used in economic dispatch problems (Li et al., 2019), control for photovoltaic arrays (Zhang et al., 2021) and batteries (Chen C. et al., 2019), etc. Alsharif et al. (2020) applied the distributed algorithm (DA) method coordinating ESS power output to enhance the frequency nadir and improve the dynamic performance. Lee et al. (2016) coordinated the group battery ESS by a distributed control algorithm for voltage and frequency deviation regulation. Cherukuri and Cortes (2018) developed a distributed method for ESSs considering the change of load, but uniform storage efficiency is assumed. However, these studies did not take into account random wind power generation or the influence of ESS control strategies on the frequency of interconnected grids. Zhao and Ding (2018a) present a DA method to maximize the total welfare of battery ESSs during frequency regulation considering changes in wind power. But, it relies on accurate predictions of wind power, which is difficult to accomplish, considering their inherent variability. As a result, the stochastic characteristics of RES should be taken into account when designing accurate control strategies for the ESS.
However, a disadvantage of the distribution methods is that the optimality of power dispatching between ESSs can only be achieved at the current time step, instead of considering the optimal solution over a future finite time horizon. The power output scheme is possibly not adapted to the energy-constrained ESSs when the signal is constantly biased, resulting in storage saturation. It indicates that the ESS can participate in the SFC only if the energy content of the signal is kept low (Megel et al., 2018). So, it is necessary to develop reasonable control strategies to maintain optimal energy levels of ESSs. But, on the other hand, if the power output of all ESSs is decided in a centralized optimization problem over a period, a large scale of variables would lead to computational burdens and intractability, which is unsuitable for real-time SFCs.
In order to fill the abovementioned research gap, a bi-layer SFC framework for the ESS is presented in this article. Different energy storage units (ESUs) in the same area are combined as an ESS cluster to reduce the computational complexities of upper-layer control, and the optimal control policies are updated in a rolling-horizon manner to ensure frequency regulation performance. Then, the ESUs coordinate their power output
viacommunication networks in real-time. Therefore, different from the previous studies, the proposed approach can achieve a balance between the optimization method considering wind power uncertainty and the distribution method with high efficiency. The main contributions of this article are summarized as follows:
1) An upper-layer optimization problem of multi-area frequency regulation considering stochastic wind power fluctuation is established to determine the optimal control policy of ESS clusters. The Itô theory-based stochastic optimization (ITB-SO) method is proposed to efficiently obtain the solutions, in which the wind power uncertainty is modeled by stochastic differential equations (SDE) without scenario generation. The computational burden is significantly reduced so that it is suitable for real-time frequency regulation.
2) To make full use of the local computing capability, a DA method with high efficiency and robustness is applied to dispatching power output among ESUs. The power command can be adaptively decomposed considering the different characteristics of power-type and energy-type units. The evaluation of the SoC level is improved by adopting the logistic function to better reflect the safe and dangerous SoC zones. Sudden withdrawal of ESUs due to energy saturation and violation of power limits can be avoided to guarantee power tracking performance.
The remainder of the article is organized as follows: Section 2 describes the multi-area frequency regulation model considering ESSs and wind power uncertainties. Section 3 proposes an optimal SFC approach for ESS clusters based on the ITB-SO method. Section 4 proposes a power dispatching approach for ESUs in the clusters based on the DA method. Case studies are presented in Section 5. Section 6 gives a conclusion.
2 System model
2.1 Dynamic model of frequency regulation considering the ESS
The system frequency is affected by load and generation sources, including conventional generators and ESSs. Regardless of the power loss, the dynamic frequency response model of multi-areas can be expressed as follows (Mauricio et al., 2009; Li et al., 2016):where is the set of area systems; is the frequency deviation of the ith area from the rated value; is the active power deviation of conventional generators from the nominal value in the ith area; is the active power of the ith ESS cluster because numerous units can be equivalently combined to reduce the number of variables; is the change of load; represents the tie line power from the ith to the jth area; is the AGC reference; and are the equivalent system inertia and damping, respectively; is turbine time constant; is the droop coefficient; is the synchronizing coefficient; is the frequency bias factor; and is the integral coefficient. Eq 1 gives the frequency dynamic characteristic; Eq. 2 shows the change of regulation output from the generators, including primary frequency regulation and AGC; Eq. 3 shows the power change on the tie line between different areas; tie-line bias control in Eq. 4 automatically adjusts the AGC reference by driving the area control errors (ACE) to zero.
The wind power output can be considered a negative system load as shown in Eq. (5), which is more difficult to accurately forecast than load. Hence, the continuous wind power fluctuations would pose a threat to the safety and stability of the system frequency.where is the deviation of wind power from its initial value in the ith area.
2.2 Energy storage model
Different ESUs are combined into an ESS cluster, so the overall power output and energy level of the ith cluster can be represented by the sum of that of the member ESUs as follows:where is the set of ESS clusters; and are the discharge and charge power of the ith ESS cluster, respectively; and are the discharge and charge power of the kth ESU, respectively; and are the energy level of the ESS cluster and ESU, respectively; the initial condition is ; and and are the charge and discharge efficiencies, respectively. The power output and energy level satisfy the limit constraints as shown in (9 and 10), and the state-of-charge (SoC) can be obtained according to the energy level as shown in (11).where represents the rated power; is the rated energy capacity; and is the SoC level of the kth ESU.
2.3 Model of wind power prediction error
SDE has been widely used as an effective model of RES prediction error, such as wind power (Verdejo et al., 2016) and photovoltaic power (Lingohr and Müller, 2019). The probability distribution information and the temporal correlation characteristic could be simultaneously expressed. It is convenient to fit the non-Gaussian distribution via the Itô process by adopting different functions in SDE models so as to well-reflect the detailed characteristics of RES uncertainty. On the other hand, the SDE model can be embedded into SO problems without scenario generation in order to significantly release computational burdens.
Specifically, the wind power output value consists of the ultra-short-term prediction in a finite time period and the prediction error, which is modeled via the Itô process as follows:where is the predicted wind power deviating from the initial forecast; represents the prediction error; and are the drift and diffusion function of SDE, respectively; is a Wiener process; represents the time constant; parameter is the mean deviation from the predicted value; is the fluctuation intensity; and and indicate the fluctuation interval. The parameters can be easily adjusted in different time periods according to the preference of operators in advance.
2.4 Bi-layer SFC framework for ESS clusters
The optimal SFC for ESS clusters is divided into two control layers. In the upper layer, the convex SO problems are established to decide the optimal power output minimizing the frequency deviation. However, modeling numerous ESUs will result in a large number of decision variables for the optimization problem, which is difficult to solve rapidly. Therefore, optimal control policies for the overall power output of ESS clusters are determined to reduce computational complexities. The ITB-SO method is applied instead of scenario-based methods in order to quickly obtain the optimal solutions for the SFC.
In the lower layer, the total power command is dispatched between the ESUs in the same ESS cluster with a communication network. The optimal dispatching scheme is obtained by the DA method considering the current SoC levels and different characteristics of power-type and energy-type units. In summary, the framework of the bi-layer optimal SFC is shown in Figure 1.
FIGURE 1
3 Optimal SFC of ESSs based on ITB-SO
3.1 Objective function
The frequency regulation control problem to minimize the frequency deviation and operation cost of the ESS can be described as a SO problem over , and the objective function is defined aswhere is the set of time index; T represents the terminal time; is the vector form of the frequency deviation of each area shown in (16); is the vector of control variables of the ESS shown in (17), including the discharge and charge components of power output. Since the objective is to achieve a minimum of the square power output, simultaneous non-zero charging and discharging power can be avoided; is the reference value for SoC, which is set as 0.5 in this study; is the vector of wind power prediction error ; denotes the expectation operator under the initial conditions ; , , and are the weight parameters.
Since different ESUs are combined into an ESS cluster and meet the power command, their overall SoC level can be estimated bywhere and are the equivalent discharge and charge efficiency, respectively, which are set as the average over ESUs; and is the total rated energy capacity of the ith ESS cluster.
It can be seen that the objective function (15) shows the trade-off between frequency regulation performance and the power and energy cost of the ESS. At the terminal time, the SoC level is forced to be close to the reference value by the objective function because it is necessary to maintain the feasibility of the next rolling horizon after the terminal time.
Moreover, the frequency deviation constraint and SoC constraint should be considered, as shown in (19) and (20), to enhance frequency regulation performance and guarantee the operation of the ESS. It is to be noted that constraint (19) could be violated sometimes when ESSs do not have enough power capacity to participate in frequency regulation, and hence it should be removed if the problem is infeasible.
3.2 Itô theory-based stochastic optimization method
3.2.1 Series expansion of stochastic assessment function
To obtain the expected value of the objective function under all uncertainties, an ITB approximation method is adopted to evaluate it in a deterministic way (Chen et al., 2019c) so that the SO problem can be solved efficiently. For convenience, the stochastic system is expressed as (21) considering the stochastic resources described by SDE.where represents the state variables, which is a column vector; is a column vector representing wind power prediction error in this study; A and B are the coefficient matrices; and the initial condition of the stochastic system is and .
The stochastic assessment function (SAF) is defined and denoted as when specific functions of are given and can be expanded into a series of deterministic terms as follows:where and are functions of with continuous second-order derivatives and is the nth order deterministic components of the SAF. Therefore, SAF can be approximately estimated by ignoring the high-order terms.
Specifically, the objective function (15) evaluated by SAF at time T can be decomposed into low-order terms as
Given that and , the 0-th and 1-st order terms of the objective function are defined aswhere is the auxiliary state variables by ignoring in (21). Hence, they can be recognized as the expected state variables in the deterministic system without the influence of uncertain resources; is independent of the state variables, so can be obtained once the initial condition is given. represents the second-order derivative of SAF components and is defined aswhere is the operator of the Hessian matrices and is another group of auxiliary state variables with . The detailed proof of the abovementioned series expansion method based on Itô theory can be found in (Chen et al., 2019c).
3.2.2 Control policy
The control output of the ESS should be appropriately adjusted in response to different wind power values. However, it is hard to accurately predict wind power so the design of the control strategy is challenging considering unrevealed uncertainties. Disturbance feedback control is needed to address the problem (Skaf and Boyd, 2010). An effective measure is parameterizing the control policies as an affine policy (Chen et al., 2019b; Qiu et al., 2020), which is expressed in (27). The control policy only needs to be updated once in each rolling period, and once is measured, the control output can be determined in real-time.where is the base control output and K is the gain matrix which leads to correction of power output according to the disturbance . Thus, the auxiliary control variables arewhere and are included in and , respectively; there is . Based on the control variables, the auxiliary variables of SoC can also be obtained aswhere and are the vector forms of and , respectively. It can be seen that the auxiliary variable of SoC is related to the historical information of wind power uncertainties, so the assessment of SoC would be gradually inaccurate over time. Therefore, the rolling-horizon manner should be used to guarantee good control performance.
3.2.3 Chance constraint
In the established SO problem, the constraints are classified into equality constraints, including (1)–(6), (18), (28), and (29); and inequality constraints, including (9), (19), and (20). The linear inequality constraints are considered in a probabilistic way as chance constraints, expressed aswhere is the set of all inequality constraints; represents the probability operator; and are the coefficients vector and the upper bound of the rth constraint, respectively; and is the chance tolerance. Chance constraint (30) can be rewritten as (31) for inner approximation with coefficient under specific probability level (Calafiore and Ghaoui, 2006).
According to the abovementioned series expansion theory, the variance term can be evaluated by SAF as (32), and a detailed explanation of (31) and (32) can be found in Supplementary Appendix SA.
3.2.4 Convex optimization problem reformulation
The convexity of the SO problem can be guaranteed when the affine feedback policy is adopted, and the optimization problem is formed as a quadratically constrained quadratic programming (QCQP) problem. The trapezoidal rule (Sanchez-Gasca et al., 1995) can be used in the numerical calculation of the integral. To express the chance constraints as a second-order cone constraint form, the coefficient vector is introduced to reformulate the variance term in (32), considering the accumulation characteristic of integral operator as
Moreover, the ‘ = ’ in the objective function can be replaced by ‘≥’ to relax and can be rewritten into second-order cone constraints similar to the method in (33). In summary, the overall optimization problem is expressed aswhere and are the square root value of and , respectively; and are the introduced coefficient vectors; and represents 2-norm operator.
4 Power dispatching approach for ESUs based on DA
Once the total power command is given by the upper-layer optimal SFC, different ESUs in the same ESS cluster are required to coordinate with each other to determine their power output and completely meet the command. However, the characteristics of different ESUs are probably inconsistent, including rated power, rated energy capacity, and the current SoC level. Thus, the possible energy saturation and violation of power limits would lead to sudden withdrawals of ESUs, which might influence the frequency regulation effect. Therefore, a DA method is proposed in this section to coordinate the power output of ESUs with communication networks and guarantee the frequency regulation performance.
4.1 Optimization control problem of ESUs
Similar to the cost of conventional generators in economic dispatch (Wen et al., 2018), the virtual cost function of ESUs can be defined as a quadratic function with respect to the power output of the ESU and the current SoC level (Megel et al., 2018) at each time step t aswhere denotes ; is the quadratic term coefficient; and is the linear term coefficient, used as an evaluation function of the current SoC level. The detailed derivation of (35) can be found in Supplementary Appendix SB.
Thus, the optimization control problem of ESUs is to achieve the minimizing objective function (36) under equality constraint (37) and other inequality constraints.where is the number of ESUs in the ith ESS cluster and is the total power command determined by the upper control layer for all ESUs in the same cluster.
In addition, the inequality constraints are twofold: power and energy limits, and power direction constraints, i.e., . It is to avoid the opposite direction of the ESU power output, which might cause some to charge others and result in a waste of resources.
This problem is a quadratic programming problem and can be solved in a centralized way (Yin et al., 2021). However, the local computing capability in a parallel way is not fully used, so the efficiency of solving optimization problems would be reduced. Therefore, the DA needs to be developed.
According to the general process of utilizing distributed methods to solve optimization problems (Wang et al., 2019), the Lagrange function is constructed in (38) based on the objective function (36) and equality constraint (37). represents the vector form of . The inequality constraints are ignored here, which will be considered later in DA. For convenience, the time step label t is omitted hereafter.where is the Lagrange multiplier. If , for any ESU, there is
In other words, when all are equal to , the original objective function (36) can achieve its extreme value. Therefore, the value of the consensus variable should approach the value of as shown in (40). In addition, is the input for the dispatching scheme of , where a higher leads to a higher and vice versa.
Specifically, the evaluation function with the basic form of logistic function (Postnikov, 2020) is proposed in this article to better-reflect the safe and dangerous zones of SoC as shown in (41).where is the weight factor with and is constructed above and below the reference value and defined aswhere is the SoC limit: when , there is ; when , there is ; and m is an adaptive factor used to adjust the steepness of in (42), in order to adjust the scope of safe and dangerous SoC levels. After several comparative analyses, m is selected as 35 as shown in Figure 2.
FIGURE 2
4.2 Discrete consensus algorithm
The main idea of DA is that the agents use a communication network to share information to complete the iterative calculation. The communication network topology can be modeled by a directed or undirected graph denoted by (Pourbabak et al., 2018), where is the set of nodes and is the set of edges formed by adjacent nodes. A Laplace matrix is defined as shown in (43), where the diagonal element is the degree of nodes in graph , and the non-diagonal element is the (0–1) element , which is determined by whether the nodes k and n are adjacent.
The agents obtain information from their neighbors through the communication network and update their own information. All agents finally converge to the same value after several iterations. The first-order discrete consensus algorithm can be updated according to (44).where l is the discrete sequence representing the lth iteration; is the consensus variable of the kth agent; and is the element of and is defined as
4.3 Control procedure of DA
1) Step 1: Initializing power dispatch and consensus variables.
Set
. Current SoC level information is measured to compute the evaluation function by
(41). The total power command is allocated equally to each ESU as the initial condition, and the consensus variable is initialized by
(40).
2) Step 2: Iterative calculation.
The consensus variables are iterated by DA. In order to ensure that the final dispatching scheme can match the total power command, a power correction term is introduced for the leader agent. The update rule is shown aswhere is the convergence coefficient that determines the convergence speed of the leader and is the deviation from command at the current iteration: is updated according to the consensus variable by the following rules:where (49) makes a restriction on the theoretical power output by (48), which is possibly infeasible due to inequality constraints, i.e., power and energy limits and power direction constraints.
Then, the remaining power deviation would be fed back to the consensus variable through the correction term and shared by other neighbors.
3) Step 3: Judging the convergence condition.
First, each ESU agent should reach an agreement with the adjacent agents on their consensus variables. However, complete consensus cannot be achieved for all agents actually, so the approximate condition is implemented aswhere means adjacent and is a small constant.
Second, the power deviation is also taken as a factor in the convergence condition as shown in (51). In order to avoid over-iteration, is set as a small constant close to 0, and it determines the accuracy of tracking the command.
In summary, the flowchart of the control procedure of the DA method is shown in Figure 3.
FIGURE 3
5 Case study
5.1 Simulation model setting
The simulations are performed using Matlab software and run on a machine equipped with Intel i7 3.2 GHz CPU and 16 GB RAM. The established optimization problems are solved by the Yalmip toolbox called Gurobi optimizer. The test simulations based on the actual wind power scenario are conducted using the Simulink platform.
The structure of the simulation system for frequency regulation is shown in Figure 4 containing two areas with rated capacities of both 600 MW and a rated system frequency of both 50 Hz. The parameters of the simulation system are listed in Table 1 (Kundur et al., 1994; Pathak et al., 2018). The parameters and initial SoC levels of the ESSs are listed in Table 2. The predicted and actual wind power deviations in the two areas are shown in Figure 5. The total simulation time is set as 7200s; the time step is set as 1s; the parameters of the SDE models can be found in Supplementary Appendix SC; the upper-layer SO problem is solved every 60 s, in which the parameter is set as 0.2Hz, as 1.7, and and as 0.2 and 0.8, respectively; and the lower-layer DA is implemented at each time step, in which the matrices are listed in Supplementary Appendix SD.
FIGURE 4
TABLE 1
| Parameters | Values | Parameters | Values |
|---|---|---|---|
| 12 | 10 | ||
| 1.6 | 1.2 | ||
| 0.08 | 0.09 | ||
| 0.3 | 0.2 | ||
| 0.01 | 0.015 | ||
| 20 | 1.67 |
Parameters of the system frequency regulation model in p.u.
TABLE 2
| Number | Type | (MW) | (MWh) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ESS cluster 1 | 1 | Power-type | 20 | 1.085 | 0.80, 0.85 | 0.62 |
| 2 | Power-type | 14 | 1.125 | 0.85, 0.95 | 0.58 | |
| 3 | Power-type | 14 | 1.755 | 0.95, 0.95 | 0.73 | |
| 4 | Energy-type | 10 | 4.36 | 0.80, 0.85 | 0.59 | |
| 5 | Energy-type | 6 | 6.0325 | 0.90, 0.85 | 0.66 | |
| 6 | Energy-type | 5 | 15.17 | 0.95, 0.85 | 0.51 | |
| ESS cluster 2 | 1 | Power-type | 11 | 2.1375 | 0.95, 0.85 | 0.47 |
| 2 | Energy-type | 9 | 4.44 | 0.85, 0.85 | 0.39 | |
| 3 | Energy-type | 8 | 5.0625 | 0.95, 0.95 | 0.33 | |
| 4 | Energy-type | 6 | 10.325 | 0.80, 0.80 | 0.38 | |
| 5 | Energy-type | 2 | 10.625 | 0.95, 0.90 | 0.41 |
Parameters of energy storage units.
FIGURE 5
5.2 Frequency regulation results
In this section, two contrast cases are introduced for comparison. Contrast method 1: the contribution of the ESS is not considered during the frequency regulation, and Contrast method 2, namely, PI: the power command for the ESS is computed via PI controller, where the input signal of PI is high-frequency components of the ACE signal via a high-pass filter. In addition, our proposed method is denoted as ITB-SO for convenience.
The results of frequency deviations under these different control methods are compared in Figure 6. It is clear that when the ESS participates in frequency regulation, the peak and nadir value of system frequency is always reduced and increased. Most of the time, the frequency deviations of the two areas can be limited within the ±0.2 Hz bounds, both under the PI and the ITB-SO methods. However, the PI method cannot respond immediately to wind power fluctuation, so it is difficult to make full use of the rapid adjustment capability of the ESS. The root mean squared (RMS) value of frequency deviations is given for comparison as shown in Figure 6. It can be seen that the RMS value under the ITB-SO method is the lowest, and that of the two different areas can be restricted to a similar level.
FIGURE 6
To verify that the proposed ITB-SO method can adaptively adjust the power output of the ESS considering different rated power and energy capacity, Figure 7 gives the simulation results under the PI and the ITB-SO methods. It can be seen that the power command for ESS cluster 2 cannot be accurately met by the actual output during several periods because the rated power of ESS cluster 2 is small. On the contrary, the scheme determined by ITB-SO is based on the estimation of the future possible power and SoC in a finite horizon; therefore, the violation of power and energy restriction can be avoided, and the frequency regulation performance can be guaranteed.
FIGURE 7
In addition, the SoC level under ITB-SO is closer to the reference value than that of the PI method. For example, the ESS cluster 2 operates near the lower SoC bound, i.e., 0.2 after 5500 s under PI control, while under ITB-SO, ESS cluster 1, with a higher energy level, discharges more power to release the burden of ESS cluster 2. That is because the penalty of SoC deviation is also considered in the objective function in order to force the SoC to the reference value.
5.3 Accuracy and results of stochastic assessment
The effectiveness of the rolling-horizon manner is validated in this section by comparing it with Monte Carlo sample (MCS) simulations, where the MCS simulations are conducted under 100 wind power generation scenarios. Results of the two successive rollings (100th and 101st) are shown in Figure 8. The violet bands represent 85–100% (5% interval) of all 100 MCS results, and the actual operation results are clearly in the scope of the MCS. The four subgraphs in the left column show the wind power deviation, frequency deviation, power, and SoC of the ESS cluster in area 1, and those in area 2 are in the right column.
FIGURE 8
In Figures 8C and D, the expected value is obtained without taking into account wind power uncertainty, where the impact of stochastic fluctuation on the objective and chance constraints in the optimization problem cannot be considered. Therefore, the application of SO is necessary. In Figures 8E and F, it can be seen that the control output of the ESS can be further corrected according to the feedback policy and respond to the real-time wind power prediction error rapidly. In Figures 8G and H, the curve marked ‘real’ is the mean value of all ESUs in the ESS cluster, and the estimated results are obtained by equivalent discharge and charge efficiency as in (18). It indicates that accuracy can be ensured, and the effectiveness of ITB-SO can be verified.
To verify the effectiveness of the approximately decomposed reformulation of SAF in the first-order form, the objective value assessed by SAF of each rolling iteration is compared with the results via MCS simulations. The gross objective is divided into multi-objective for comparison as shown in Figure 9, including the objective of frequency deviations, control variables, and SoC deviations. It evidenced the accuracy of SAF without scenario generation; thus, the computational efficiency can be enhanced.
FIGURE 9
5.4 Results of DA
Taking the ESUs in the ESS cluster 1 as an example, Figure 10 shows their output power and SoC level under the DA method, compared with the contrast method, which is to reach the average command signals. It is easy to be implemented without iteration, and the power command can be met under ideal situations.
FIGURE 10
However, the tracking error cannot be eliminated because of the SoC saturation or violation of rated power in some cases when the power command is equally allocated to each ESU. For example, in Figures 10C and D, some ESUs withdraw from frequency regulation since their SoC level reaches the upper bound (such as 800 s) and the lower bound (such as 2500 s) or the power signal is larger than the rated output (such as 1080 s), while others with large energy capacity are barely used. Therefore, the effect of frequency regulation could deteriorate due to sudden withdrawals. In contrast, the proposed DA method enables all ESUs to coordinate their output power and adjust their SoC at optimal levels. It is clear from Figure 10B that the SoC level is attracted to their reference value and the saturation can be avoided. Therefore, the DA method can make full use of the characteristics and advantages of power-type and energy-type units effectively.
Random communication failure between the ESU agents is implemented to verify the robustness of the DA dispatching method. The results are studied in different simulation systems containing 5, 10, 20, and 50 ESUs. The situation with complete connectivity is defined as all units being connected with each other. Then, the proportion of missing communication links varies from 10 to 80% (10% interval) by disconnecting the communication links randomly. The boxplot of iteration times and the mean value of algebraic connectivity are shown in Figure 11. The algebraic connectivity is the second smallest eigenvalue of the Laplace matrix , which reflects the connectivity of the graph (Yoonsoo and Mesbahi, 2006).
FIGURE 11
When parts of the communication links disconnect between ESUs, they can still share information through other remaining links and successfully track the power command as well. It can be found in Figure 11 that with the increase in the number of missing links, the connectivity gradually decreases while iteration times increase. However, the trend is diverse with different numbers of units: iteration times with 20 and 50 units increase slower than that with 5 and 10 units, and the iteration characteristic is more stable. It indicates that random communication failure has a slight impact on the system with numerous ESUs and the robustness is higher.
6 Conclusion
In this article, a bi-layer optimal SFC approach is proposed for ESSs to participate in multi-area systems frequency regulation under continuous wind power fluctuations. The upper-layer control based on the ITB-SO method in a rolling-horizon manner is implemented to determine the power command for different ESS clusters considering wind power uncertainties. The power output of ESUs in the same cluster is coordinated using the DA method in the lower-layer control to track the total power command. The simulation applications reveal that 1) the stability of the system frequency can be enhanced by compensating for wind power volatility immediately via ESSs. Moreover, the trade-off between frequency regulation performance and the operation cost of the ESS can be achieved. 2) The ITB-SO method can solve optimization problems precisely without generating scenarios of wind power. The computational efficiency is high, so it is suitable for real-time SFCs. 3) Sudden withdrawals of ESSs due to energy saturation and violation of power limit can be avoided by dispatching power signals using the DA method. The robustness of the DA method is also validated while missing limited communication links between ESUs. In future work, the addition of PV systems would be considered.
Statements
Data availability statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article; further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Author contributions
ZW, FW, and LS contributed to the conception and design of the study. ZW and YL are responsible for providing experimental design and data analysis. ZW and WH are responsible for providing code implementation. All authors contributed to the manuscript writing revised, read, and approved the submitted version.
Funding
This work was supported in part by the Funds for International Cooperation and Exchanges of the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant 52061635102, and in part by the Overseas Expertise Introduction Project for Discipline Innovation (“111Project”) under Grant B14022.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors, and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
Supplementary material
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fenrg.2022.1005281/full#supplementary-material
Glossary
- RES
Renewable energy sources
- SFC
Secondary frequency control
- ESS
Energy storage system
- ESU
Energy storage unit
- SoC
State-of-charge
- AGC
Automatic generation control
- ACE
Area control errors
- ITB-SO
Itô theory-based stochastic optimization
- DA
Distributed algorithm
- SDE
Stochastic differential equation
- SAF
Stochastic assessment function
- MCS
Monte Carlo samples
- Variables
Frequency deviation of the ith area
Active power deviation of conventional generators in the ith area
Active power of ith ESS cluster
Change of load in the ith area
Tie line power from the ith to the jth area
AGC reference for the ith area
Deviation of wind power in the ith area
Predicted wind power in the ith area
Prediction error of wind power in the ith area
Discharge and charge power of ith ESS cluster
Discharge and charge power of kth ESU
Energy level of ith ESS cluster
Energy level of kth ESU
SoC level of kth ESU
Base control output of the ESS
- K
Gain matrix of feedback control
- Parameters
Equivalent system inertia
Equivalent system damping
Turbine time constant
Droop coefficient
Synchronizing coefficient
Frequency bias factor
Integral coefficient
Charge and discharge efficiencies
Rated power
Rated energy capacity
Bound of frequency
Lower and upper bound of SoC
Communication matrix of ith ESS cluster
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Summary
Keywords
energy storage, frequency regulation, wind power uncertainty, stochastic optimization, Itô theory, distributed algorithm
Citation
Wang Z, Wu F, Li Y, Huang W and Shi L (2022) Bi-layer optimal secondary frequency control approach for energy storage clusters considering wind power uncertainty. Front. Energy Res. 10:1005281. doi: 10.3389/fenrg.2022.1005281
Received
28 July 2022
Accepted
23 August 2022
Published
23 September 2022
Volume
10 - 2022
Edited by
Shiwei Xia, North China Electric Power University, China
Reviewed by
Lei Sun, Hefei University of Technology, China
Amit Kumar, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, India
Updates
Copyright
© 2022 Wang, Wu, Li, Huang and Shi.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Yang Li, eeliyang@hhu.edu.cn
This article was submitted to Smart Grids, a section of the journal Frontiers in Energy Research
Disclaimer
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.