- 1School of Marine Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, China
- 2Department of Earth Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
- 3State Key Laboratory of Isotope Geochemistry, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
- 4Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Coastal Ocean Variation and Disaster Prediction, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, China
- 5School of Earth Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- 6State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi’an, China
- 7Anhui Key Laboratory of Polar Environment and Global Change, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
Coastal regions of the northern South China Sea (SCS) strongly interact with the Asian monsoon circulation (AMC). Thus, variations of sea surface temperature (SST) here are newly suggested to document AMC changes in an effective manner, but additional physical parameters of oceanic conditions, probably also in relation to the AMC system, remain poorly understood. In this study, we analyzed glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraethers (GDGTs) from a well-dated sediment core YJ, retrieved at the northern SCS coast, to further scrutinize the intrinsic response of water column to winter AMC strength. It shows that within the time frame of past ∼1,000 years, the tetraether index of lipids with 86 carbon atoms (
Introduction
The Asian monsoon circulation (AMC), as triggered by large-scale thermal contrast between ocean and land, characterizes a seasonal reversal of prevailing wind directions. In the summertime, it carries an enormous amount of moisture from the Indian and Pacific Oceans toward southern and northeastern Asia, and, consequently, exerts a considerable influence over the water cycle and the terrestrial ecosystem (Wang et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2017). In this regard, much attention has been drawn until now to explore summer AMC variability and the physical mechanism(s) from seasonal to orbital timescales (e.g., Hu et al., 2008; An et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2015; Xie et al., 2015; Cheng et al., 2016). In contrast, the winter component of the AMC itself often diverges cold-dry air from the Asian countries such as Siberia-Mongolia toward oceans, thus with little potential to deliver water vapor directly. Despite such fact, winter AMC is still of importance in transporting eolian dust and/or aerosol, and therefore in regulating the regional (and global) climate system (Maher et al., 2010; Kok et al., 2018). Combined with its impact upon the summer AMC precipitation subsequently (Bollasina et al., 2011; Li et al., 2016; Cai et al., 2019), a complete understanding of winter AMC variations at present and, if possible, before the instrumental era (after ∼1850 AD) (e.g., Wen et al., 2016; Kang et al., 2020) would provide constructive insight into their intrinsic link against both anthropogenic and natural backgrounds. Abundant analyses based on the grain size and geochemical proxies from Chinese loess sequences at available sparse sites (Stevens et al., 2007; Li and Morrill 2015), on the one hand, have indeed advanced our knowledge about this topic, but on the other hand, these paleorecords, distributed across continental interiors, rather face difficulty to draw a clear picture of winter AMC behavior, for example, its far-field effect on terrestrial ecosystem especially. For example, at Huguangyan Maar Lake, winter AMC intensity, as inferred from diatom assemblages (Wang et al., 2012) and magnetic susceptibility (Yancheva et al., 2007), respectively, presents controversial temporal features during the Holocene (since ∼11,700 years ago before present, “yr BP” hereafter).
Next to Huguangyan Maar Lake, the South China Sea (SCS) is also strongly involved into the AMC coupling process (e.g., Xie et al., 1998; Lau and Nath 2009; Wang et al., 2009; Liu and Zhu 2016) and hence well suited to fingerprint its variability. In fact, along the SCS northern coasts, sea surface temperature (SST) apparently exhibits shore-parallel gradient and intensive vertical mixing in winter, while horizontal homogenization and vertical stratification in summer (Figures 1A,B; Wang, 2007; Jing et al., 2009). Such seasonality of SST variations and their difference, for example, at both horizontal and vertical scales, are readily capable of revealing winter AMC signals across different timescales (e.g., Tian et al., 2010; Huang et al., 2011; Steinke et al., 2011; Kong, 2014a, Kong et al., 2014b). Particularly, our recent study (Zhang et al., 2019), based on a well-dated sediment core YJ, ∼200 km far away from the Pearl River delta (Figure 1), has shown extraordinary decrease (by up to ∼4°C) of alkenone SSTs and remarkable increase (by two to four orders of magnitude) of wind-borne terrigenous hopane contents during the Little Ice Age (LIA, ∼150–550 years BP), consequently demonstrating an overall intensification of winter AMC, relative to the Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA, ∼700–1,100 years BP) and other intervals in the context of Holocene. This explanation, albeit well corroborated by a growing number of terrestrial paleorecords (e.g., Yancheva et al., 2007; Kang et al., 2020), still deserves independent evidence of oceanic conditions which, as inherently linked to SST change, would offer excellent opportunity to further illustrate the fundamental role of winter AMC variations in affecting coastal waters. To this end, the time window of last millennium covering both the LIA and MCA, two well-identified climate anomaly intervals during the late Holocene (Mann et al., 2008), is specifically focused here for a tentative attempt to examine how the northern SCS coastal conditions, for example, in terms of both salinity and thermal properties, would have responded to winter AMC change at multi-centennial timescales.
FIGURE 1. Regional setting and the site of core YJ, existing paleorecords in the northern South China Sea (black dots) and at Huguang Maar Lake (orange star) as mentioned in the main text, are plotted against long-term (1985–2006 AD) averaged January (A) and July (B) sea surface temperature (SST, color scale) from the AVHRR dataset (Casey, 2013). Chronology (C) and lithology (D) of core YJ are cited from Huang et al. (2018) and Zhang et al. (2019). Note that the core-top (C) is calculated based on 210Pb/137Cs dates, to be 2013 AD when our core YJ was retrieved.
Taking the advantage of sediment core YJ, including i) high-quality control of the chronological framework (Figures 1C,D) and ii) limited influence of the Pearl River freshwater discharge (Figure 2), we hence directly analyzed glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether (GDGT) lipid biomarkers on its uppermost ∼65 cm section. Together with the existing measurements of the alkenone unsaturation index (
FIGURE 2. Comparison between temperature estimates at the topmost sample based on
Material and Methods
Core Site and Chronology
Geographically, sediment core YJ (112°8.08′ E, 21°31.44′ N) is raised at a water depth of ∼21 m from the inner continental shelf offshore Yangjiang city with a distance of ∼200 km to the southwest of the Pearl River estuary. This site, according to modern observations (e.g., Dunn and Ridgway 2002; Casey, 2013), characterizes prominent SST variations between ∼28.3°C in summer (June-July-August, JJA) and ∼20.9°C in winter (December–January–February, DJF), but small changes in sea surface salinity (i.e., ∼32.4 psu in JJA and ∼33.4 psu in DJF; Figure 2) due to limited influence of the Pearl River discharge. Most importantly, it is located at the coastal sector outside ∼1°C cooling effect of summer upwelling (e.g., to the east of the Pearl River delta and northeast of the Hainan Island, Figure 1B), while surface cooling here is largely determined by vertical mixing of the onsite water column in winter (Figure 1A). This site is hence well suited to examine the response of northern SCS coastal conditions to winter AMC changes, for example, by using the
The age model of this core, as already published before by Huang et al. (2018) and Zhang et al. (2019), was achieved by combining both lead (210Pb)/cesium (137Cs) and radiocarbon (14C) methods. To summarize, measurements of 13 210Pb/137Cs radionuclide activity and 18 14C dates (at Beta Analytic Inc., United States) were implemented on samples of bulk sediments above 13 cm and complete shells below this depth, respectively. These age control points were then operated within R script BACON software (version 2.2, Blaauw and Christen 2011) and the Marine 13 calibration curve (Reimer et al., 2013), using default parameters and a 252-year correction of regional reservoir age (Southon et al., 2002; Yu et al., 2010), to compute the mean age and 2σ uncertainty at 1 cm resolution. Such a chronological framework hints a possible hiatus of sedimentary deposit at the depth between ∼65 and 85 cm (Figure 1C; see details in Zhang et al., 2019). Hence, we mainly focus on the topmost 65 cm of the core YJ, roughly spanning the past ∼1,000 years, to analyze GDGT biomarkers for detecting the AMC signal across the LIA and MCA.
Organic Biomarkers
Core YJ was sampled continuously with a step of 1 cm down its uppermost 65 cm, which, based on our chronology as stated in Core Site and Chronology section, guaranteed a temporal resolution of ∼10–15 years per sample for the past ∼1,000 years. Afterward, bulk sediment samples (∼5 g) were freeze-dried, then grounded, and soaked to extract total lipids by solvent dichloromethane (DCM): methanol (MeOH) (9:1; v/v) in 60 ml vials, under an ultrasonic wave in the 40°C water bath for three cycles (∼15 min each). The extract was subsequently hydrolyzed with 6% KOH in MeOH to remove alkenoates and separated into three fractions via silica gel column chromatography with successive eluents of n-hexane, DCM, and MeOH, respectively. Finally, GDGTs were isolated in MeOH fraction, alkenones in DCM fraction, and n-alkanes in hexane fraction.
Analyses of MeOH fraction were conducted on high-performance liquid chromatography atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (HPLC-APCI)-mass spectrometry (e.g., Liu et al., 2013). An aliquot of the fraction was directly dried under N2, and then redissolved in hexane: isopropanol (99:1; v/v) and filtered after mixing with a known amount of C46 internal standard (Huguet et al., 2006). Selected ion monitoring (SIM), which targets specific mass numbers for GDGT components (membrane lipids biosynthesized as multiple homolog series of isoprenoid or methyl-branched isomers, termed isoprenoid-GDGTs, and branched-GDGTs, respectively, see detailed description in Schouten et al., 2013), was used to enhance the detection sensitivity. Quantification was carried out by integrating the peak area of [M + H]+ ions in the extracted ion chromatogram and comparing with the C46 internal standard. We then calculated the ACE, BIT, and
Results
Throughout the past millennium, ACE values appear to be relatively high during the LIA, especially at its onset (centered around ∼500 years BP), as compared to the MCA (Figure 3A). In contrast, the BIT index generally experiences a gradual declining trend from ∼0.3 during the MCA (and the earlier epochs, marked by a possible hiatus in sediment accumulation and hence not shown here) toward ∼0.15 in the recent years (Figure 3B). Unlike these two modes,
FIGURE 3. GDGT proxies of sediment core YJ during the last millennium, for example, (A) ratio of archaeol to caldarchaeol (ACE) (higher values downward), (B) the branched and isoprenoid tetraether (BIT), (C)
FIGURE 4. Organic geochemical proxies of core YJ over the last millennium, including (A)
Discussion
Recent studies have shown that the possible source of brGDGTs, for example, terrigenous originated (e.g., soil) or in situ synthesized (mainly at subsurface waters), is critical to determine the BIT index and thus its proper explanation (Weijers et al., 2014; Xiao et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2021). For example, more subsurface production of brGDGTs in the Qiongzhou Strait is suggested to be responsible for higher BIT values (∼0.4–0.6), which, as a result, reflect enhanced stratification of the onsite water column and thus change in summer AMC strength (Wang et al., 2021). At our study site YJ, BIT values, primarily subjected to crenarchaeol (one major component of isoGDGTs) rather than brGDGT variations (Supplementary Figure 1), also imply water column stratification. A set of field surveys, based on collection of both the sediment trap and core-top samples, show that, at the transition zones between the Pearl River estuary and the SCS northern coast, the bloom of autotrophic ammonia-oxidizing Thaumarchaeota, main producers of isoGDGTs with limited brGDGTs, tends to preferably occur under the hydrological conditions in the coldest months, like low light levels (e.g., Zhang et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2015; Jia et al., 2017) and less stratified water. Meanwhile, at normal marine settings, including those on the continental shelf, light and redox conditions can also yield redistribution of Euryarchaeota/Archaea community, leading to stratification of archaeal membrane lipids (with relatively high archaeol in subsurface waters, Turich et al., 2007; Weijers et al., 2014; Xiao et al., 2016; Zhu et al., 2016). In this sense, the coeval variations of isoGDGTs and archaeol abundance in our particular case may cause opposite temporal patterns of BIT and ACE indices (Supplementary Figures 1, 2). This fact, in contrary to a recent study presented by Wang et al. (2021) who have applied the concomitant increase in these two proxies to represent enhanced stratification of the northern SCS coastal water, thereby calls for other interpretation(s) to reconcile competing patterns of our BIT and ACE proxies (Figures 3A,B). Considering the small variations of BIT values and brGDGTs (Supplementary Figure 1), we thus interpret relatively low BIT ratios during the LIA as increased production of the ubiquitous Thaumarchaeota, relative to other Euryarchaeota/Archaea. Besides, it is also worth stressing that despite similar features of changes in crenarchaeol and caldarchaeol (GDGT-0) (Supplementary Figures 1, 2), two most abundant components of isoGDGTs, the observed ACE values here may still primarily respond to Euryarchaeota/Archaea community changes, therefore no longer being an indicator of water column stratification (e.g., Wang et al., 2021).
Based on the results of previous studies (Turich and Freeman, 2011; He et al., 2020), the ACE index might represent salinity if it mainly responds to Euryarchaeota/Archaea community changes. This prerequisite indeed exists in our case, because one could apparently see a major control of Euryarchaeota/Archaea on the ACE record (Supplementary Figure 2). Due to the different characteristics of BIT and ACE records that strongly exclude the latter as a tracer of stratification (Wang et al., 2021), we instead assume ACE to manifest salinity. As such, multi-centennial–scale variations in our ACE record, as depicted in Figure 4G, suggest increased (decreased) salinity of the onsite water column across the LIA (MCA) (Turich and Freeman, 2011). Together with the inference of the available
The physical mechanism for our inference is further substantiated by the BIT index and
In our case, downcore
Since
Conclusion
We used a sediment core YJ, collected from the northern SCS coast, to analyze GDGT lipid biomarkers during the past millennium. These proxies, together with published alkenone (
Data Availability Statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material; further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization: ZL; investigation: KZ, CH, DK, YH, HW, and ZX; formal analysis: YZ and ZL; resources: WL, GW, and ZL; funding acquisition: WL and ZL; writing: YZ and ZL led the writing with intellectual contributions from all coauthors.
Funding
This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2016YFA0601204) and Hong Kong RGC Grant 17325516.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
The reviewer (YH) declared a shared affiliation with several of the authors, (HW, WL, ZX), to the handling editor at time of review.
Publisher’s Note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
Acknowledgments
We sincerely thank guest editors for inviting contribution to this special issue and anonymous referees for providing insightful comments to improve our manuscript.
Supplementary Material
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2021.680180/full#supplementary-material
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Keywords: South China Sea, coastal conditions, GDGTs, last millennium, Asian winter monsoon
Citation: Zhang Y, Zhu K, Huang C, Kong D, He Y, Wang H, Liu W, Xie Z, Wei G and Liu Z (2021) Asian Winter Monsoon Imprint on the Water Column Structure at the Northern South China Sea Coast. Front. Earth Sci. 9:680180. doi: 10.3389/feart.2021.680180
Received: 13 March 2021; Accepted: 12 July 2021;
Published: 23 August 2021.
Edited by:
Shengfa Liu, Ministry of Natural Resources, ChinaReviewed by:
Kefu Yu, Guangxi University, ChinaHong Yan, Institute of Earth Environment (CAS), China
Qian Li, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, China
Copyright © 2021 Zhang, Zhu, Huang, Kong, He, Wang, Liu, Xie, Wei and Liu. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Yancheng Zhang, zhangych99@mail.sysu.edu.cn