Recent progress in the design of photocatalytic H2O2 synthesis system

Photocatalytic synthesis of hydrogen peroxide under mild reaction conditions is a promising technology. This article will review the recent research progress in the design of photocatalytic H₂O₂ synthesis systems. A comprehensive discussion of the strategies that could solve two essential issues related to H₂O₂ synthesis. That is, how to improve the reaction kinetics of H₂O₂ formation via 2e⁻ oxygen reduction reaction and inhibit the H₂O₂ decomposition through a variety of surface functionalization methods. The photocatalyst design and the reaction mechanism will be especially stressed in this work which will be concluded with an outlook to show the possible ways for synthesizing high-concentration H₂O₂ solution in the future.

1 Introduction

H₂O₂ is an indispensable chemical in daily life. It has many applications in fields such as biology (Chang et al., 2021; Noh et al., 2020; Guarino et al., 2019), medicine (Andersen et al., 2006; Kozlova et al., 2015; Wang Y. et al., 2020), chemical industry (Chung et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2021), environmental protection (Dinakar et al., 2020; Moreno, 2011). As a clean oxidant, the decomposition of H₂O₂ only yields H₂O, which does not pose an environmental risk. Currently, the anthraquinone (AQ) method is the main method for the industrial production of H₂O₂ (Sterenchuk et al., 2018). The AQ method for H₂O₂ synthesis includes two steps: hydrogenation and oxidation (Campos-Martin et al., 2006; Halder and Lawal, 2007; Gao et al., 2020). In this method, AQ is used as an intermediate, and the hydrogenation reaction is first performed with palladium catalyst (Chen, 2008; Edwards and Hutchings, 2008; Han et al., 2015). Then, oxygen is added to oxidize the hydroanthraquinone (AQH₂) back to AQ and produce H₂O₂ (Figure 1). However, the AQ method not only has the risk of explosion, but consumes a lot of energy and organic solvent (Chen, 2008; Jia et al., 2018). Therefore, it is crucial to develop a safe and direct method to synthesize H₂O₂. The methods of direct H₂O₂ synthesis mainly includes electrocatalysis (Apaydin et al., 2018; Du et al., 2020; Sun et al., 2020; Shu et al., 2021), photocatalysis (Chen et al., 2018; Kormann et al.), and thermal catalysis (Adams et al., 2021). The electrocatalytic H₂O₂ synthesis has a high yield but it needs to consume useful electricity. Thermocatalytic H₂O₂ synthesis from oxygen and hydrogen also faces the risk of explosion when mixing the gases. The emerging photocatalytic H₂O₂ synthesis only uses solar energy to drive reaction without introducing hydrogen.

FIGURE 1

FIGURE 1. Flow chart of synthesis of H₂O₂ by AQ method (Yang et al., 2018).

During photocatalytic H₂O₂ synthesis, the electron is first excited from the valence band to the conduction band of the photocatalyst. Then, it participates in oxygen reduction reactions (ORR) on the surface to generate H₂O₂. H₂O₂ synthesis via oxygen reduction can undergo two pathways. The step-by-step single-electron pathway is the first one (Eqs. 1–3), which is characterized by the presence of superoxide (HO₂•) intermediate. The other is the direct two-electron (2e^–) pathway (Eq. 1 and Eq. 4). Which one of these occurs can be confirmed by detecting the intermediate HO₂• (Viswanathan et al., 2012; Baran et al., 2018; Fukuzumi et al., 2018; Haider et al., 2019; Anantharaj et al., 2021; Yang, 2021; Guo et al., 2022).

$\mathbf{Photocatalyst}+\mathbf{hv}\to {\mathbf{e}}^{-}+{\mathbf{h}}^{+}(1)$

${\mathbf{O}}_{\mathbf{2}}+{\mathbf{e}}^{-}+{\mathbf{H}}^{+}\to •\mathbf{O}\mathbf{O}\mathbf{H}(2)$

$•\mathbf{O}\mathbf{O}\mathbf{H}+{\mathbf{e}}^{-}+{\mathbf{H}}^{+}\to {\mathbf{H}}_{\mathbf{2}}{\mathbf{O}}_{\mathbf{2}}(3)$

${\mathbf{O}}_{\mathbf{2}}+\mathbf{2}{\mathbf{e}}^{-}+\mathbf{2}{\mathbf{H}}^{+}\to {\mathbf{H}}_{\mathbf{2}}{\mathbf{O}}_{\mathbf{2}}(4)$

Photocatalytic H₂O₂ generation is also accompanied by a decomposition reaction, which is the root cause of poor reaction stability. The decomposition process includes photolysis and light-independent decomposition. Taking TiO₂ as an example, photolysis can occur mainly in four ways (Ⅰ) photogenerated electrons reduce H₂O₂ to OH⁻and •OH; (Ⅱ) photogenerated holes oxidize hydrogen peroxide to O₂ or superoxide radical •O₂⁻; (Ⅲ) The titanium peroxide complex (Ti-OOH) formed on the surface by the interaction of TiO₂ and H₂O₂ gradually degrades under visible light; (Ⅳ) direct decomposition of H₂O₂ under ultraviolet light. H₂O₂ can also be decomposed in ways independent of light, such as pH and temperature.

The formation and decomposition performance of hydrogen peroxide are closely related to the surface properties of semiconductor photocatalysts. First, the high selectivity of cocatalysts to 2e⁻ ORR is needed to improve the photocatalytic H₂O₂ formation. Second, the functional modifier on photocatalyst can inhibit the decomposition of H₂O₂. These strategies indicate that surface functionalization of photocatalysts is very important. Considering these issues, we review the recent advances in the design of photocatalysts for H₂O₂ synthesis in this work.

2 Effect of cocatalyst on photocatalytic activity

2.1 Noble metal cocatalysts

Precious metals are widely used as cocatalysts in electrocatalysis and photocatalysis, while they also show excellent performance in ORR (Zinola et al., 1995; Chen et al., 2017a; Cai et al., 2019; Ignaczak et al., 2019; Jeon et al., 2020). Pt has good ORR performance and strong binding ability to intermediates such as O₂ and OH•. When using Pt, generating H₂O via 4e^–ORR is favored, but it has poor selectivity for 2e^–ORR (Kim J. et al., 2018; Chen J. Y. et al., 2020). Among these noble metals, Au has the best selectivity for 2e⁻ ORR, which has achieved efficient photocatalytic H₂O₂ synthesis in photocatalytic reaction (Jirkovsky et al., 2010; Jirkovsky et al., 2011; Zuo et al., 2019a; Ignaczak et al., 2019; Sun et al., 2020). Zuo et al. studied the influence of a series of noble metal co-catalysts (Pd, Pt, Au, and Ag) on the performance of photocatalytic H₂O₂ synthesis over g-C₃N₄. They found that the maximum activity could be achieved when the Au loading amount is very low (0.01 wt%) on g-C₃N₄ (Figure 2A) (Zuo et al., 2019a). A similar study showed that Au cocatalyst has the highest activity among different precious metals modified g-C₃N₄ samples (Kim H. I. et al., 2018). Similar high activity was observed over Au loaded TiO₂-based photocatalysts (Tsukamoto et al., 2012), (Li L. et al., 2021; Feng et al., 2021).

FIGURE 2

FIGURE 2. (A) Under visible light irradiation (λ > 420 nm), different noble metal loaded CN photocatalyzed H₂O₂ activity (Zuo et al., 2019a). (B) Mechanism for photocatalytic production of H₂O₂ on Au-Ag/TiO₂ catalyst (Tsukamoto et al., 2012). (C) Photodecomposition of H₂O₂ under UV light with and without photocatalysts (Meng et al., 2020); (D) Energy diagrams for Au/TiO₂ and Au/BiVO₄, and reduction potential of O₂ (Hirakawa et al., 2016).

The H₂O₂ yield of Au-Ag alloy cocatalyst supported on the surface of TiO₂ was 2.3 times and 3.4 times higher than that of single Au or Ag cocatalyst. The reason was that the loaded Au-Ag alloy was conducive to the separation of electron holes, and the efficient photocatalytic reduction of O₂ on Au atom promotes the formation of H₂O₂ (Figure 2B) (Tsukamoto et al., 2012). However, the activity of Au deposition on ZnO was better than that on TiO₂, which is attributed to the more inert surface properties of ZnO than TiO₂ when decomposing H₂O₂ (Figure 2C) (Meng et al., 2020).

Hirakawa et al. (Hirakawa et al., 2016) suggested that activity of Au cocatalyst is affected by the band structure of semiconductor photocatalytsts. They employed Au/BiVO₄ photocatalyst to successfully produce H₂O₂ under visible light irradiation (λ> 420 nm). Since the conduction band potential of BiVO₄ (0.02 V vs SHE) is more positive than the one-electron ORR potential (-0.13V) and more negative than the 2e⁻ ORR (0.68 V vs SHE), the 2e⁻ ORR can be selectively promoted while the one-electron ORR is inhibited. Compared with TiO₂, BiVO₄ has a narrower band gap, which indicates that BiVO₄ has a better ability to utilize visible light and 2e ORR selectivity than TiO₂ (Figure 2D).

2.2 Non-precious metal cocatalysts

Considering the scarcity and high cost of precious metals, developing non-precious metal co-catalysts for 2e^–ORR is crucial (Zhang J. et al., 2020; Yan et al., 2020). For example, the surface of g-C₃N₄ was loaded with AQ as a cocatalyst. Its activity reached 361 μm/h, which was 4.4 times that of pure g-C₃N₄ and comparable to some precious metals. This is because, in addition to the 2e⁻ ORR reaction catalyzed by pure g-C₃N₄, another H₂O₂ synthesis pathway via hydrogenation (AQ + 2H⁺ + 2e⁻→AQH₂) and dehydrogenation (AQH₂ + O₂→AQ + H₂O₂) plays a key role in the photocatalytic reaction (Kim H. I. et al., 2018). For CoP loaded on g-C₃N₄, the catalytic activity of CoP/g-C₃N₄ (70 μM•h⁻¹) was similar to that of Au/g-C₃N₄ (67.56 μM•h⁻¹) (Zuo et al., 2019a). This can be attributed to the accelerated separation and transfer of g-C₃N₄ photogenerated charge by CoP (Peng et al., 2017). The method of loading quantum dots to improve visible light absorption and electron mobility is also beneficial to photocatalytic synthesis of H₂O₂ (Zheng et al., 2018; Zhang M. M. et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2021a). Table 1 summarizes the effects of cocatalysts on hydrogen peroxide production activity.

TABLE 1

TABLE 1. Activities of photocatalysts with different types of cocatalyst.

3 Effect of surface modification on photocatalytic activity

In addition to increasing the activity of H₂O₂ production by the deposition of co-catalysts, decreasing the decomposition rate via surface modification is essential to maximize the final concentration of H₂O₂.

3.1 Surface passivation modification

TiO₂ can catalyze the decomposition of H₂O₂ under visible light. Ti-OOH that form on the surface due to the interaction of TiO₂ and H₂O₂ gradually degrade under visible light. This is the main reason for the decrease of H₂O₂ concentration during reactions (Li et al., 2001; Teranishi et al., 2010). Surface passivation can effectively inhibit the decomposition of H₂O₂. It can be carried out either by metal oxide passivation or non-metal passivation. Passivation of a photocatalyst with a metal oxide leads to the formation of a heterojunction (Zeng et al., 2017; Zuo et al., 2019b; Awa et al., 2020; Feng et al., 2021). For example, the surface of anatase TiO₂ and rutile TiO₂ were modified with SnO₂ to form SnO₂-TiO₂ heterojunction. Then, the surface was functionalized with gold nanoparticles, and it was found that the formation activity of H₂O₂ was improved. This is because the decomposition of H₂O₂ on the TiO₂ surface is inhibited (Figure 3A) (Zuo et al., 2019b). However, the H₂O₂ photocatalytic synthesis reaction rate of Au modified Bi₂O₃-TiO₂ was better than that of Au/SnO₂-TiO₂. This is because not only the decomposition of H₂O₂ is inhibited, but also the carrier recombination in Bi₂O₃ is inhibited (Feng et al., 2021). A similar phenomenon is found in the heterojunction formed on g-C₃N₄ (Chen et al., 2017b; Chen X. L. et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2021b).

FIGURE 3

FIGURE 3. (A) Schematic illustration of H₂O₂ synthesis and decomposition over Au/SnO₂ -TiO₂ (Zuo et al., 2019b). (B) Photocatalytic H₂O₂ production over 0.1% Au/F-TiO₂ prepared with different F/Ti ratios (Li L. et al., 2021).

Non—metallic surface modification was also effective for improving photocatalytic activity (Maurino et al., 2005; Moon et al., 2014; Zhang M. M. et al., 2020; Li L. et al., 2021). For example, by hydrothermal treatment of TiO₂ and NaF to obtain F-TiO₂, the decomposition of H₂O₂ is inhibited. This was due to the fact that the F ion fixed on the TiO₂ surface competes with the Ti-OOH formation, thus reducing the Ti-OOH formation. Therefore, it was no longer necessary to add NaF to the photocatalytic reaction medium (Figure 3B) (Li L. et al., 2021).

3.2 Organic molecular modification

Imine organic molecules can be used to modify the surface of g-C₃N₄ to inhibit the electron-hole pair recombination of g-C₃N₄ (Shiraishi et al., 2014a; Kofuji et al., 2016; Yang et al., 2017; Goclon and Winkler, 2018; Guo et al., 2020; Zeng et al., 2020). For example, modification of the surface of g-C₃N₄ with homobendiimide and bibendiimide increased the synthesis activity of H₂O₂ (Figures 4A–C) (Shiraishi et al., 2014a; Kofuji et al., 2016). Besides the pure g-C₃N₄ reaction, another H₂O₂ synthesis pathway (•OH +•OH→H₂O₂) also plays a key role in the polyimide modified g-C₃N₄ nanosheets (Yang et al., 2017). In another publication, it was found that the modification of g-C₃N₄ by β-cyclodextrin can increase its hydrophobicity and affinity for oxygen, thus increasing the yield of H₂O₂ (Figure 4D) (Zuo et al., 2020).

FIGURE 4

FIGURE 4. (A) Three-dimensional structure of g-C₃N₄/BDI. (B) Proposed Mechanism for H₂O₂ Formation on the Photoexcited g-C₃N₄/BDI Catalyst. (C) Photocurrent response of g-C₃N₄/BDI₅₀ and g-C₃N₄/PDI₅₁ in 0.1 M Na₂SO₄ solution under visible light (λ >420 nm) at a bias of 0.5 V vs. Ag/AgCl (Kofuji et al., 2016). (D) The water contact angle of Au/β-CD-CN (Zuo et al., 2020).

Metal organic frameworks (MOFs) are promising materials that can be used to modify photocatalysts. This is because metal nodes and organic linkers of MOFs can be easily modified to improve photon absorption and catalytic activity. Therefore, various modification strategies have been devised, such as double substrate metal-organic framework, metal nanoparticles and MOF composite, etc (Wang Z. et al., 2020; Duan et al., 2020; Younis et al., 2020; Fang et al., 2021). The results showed that the activity of H₂O₂ synthesis was improved by modification of ZIF (Chang et al., 2020) and MIL (Isaka et al., 2019) type metal-organic framework materials. It was mainly attributed to the wider bandgap energy. Titanium-zirconium MOFs were prepared and used for photocatalytic production of H₂O₂ in two phase system (water/benzoic acid). Ti species effectively promoted electron transfer from the photoexcited linkers of MOFs to Ti and inhibited the recombination of electron-hole pairs in the hydrophobic MOFs matrix (Chen et al., 2020c). Table 2 summarizes the effects of different surface modifications on hydrogen peroxide production activity.

TABLE 2

TABLE 2. Activities of photocatalysts with different types of surface modification.

4 Effect of doping on the photocatalytic activity

Doping elements can effectively reduce the band gap of photocatalysts to improve the utilization of solar light (Akpan and Hameed, 2010; Zhao et al., 2017). Studies have shown that doping can change the number of active sites, reduce the formation energy of •OOH intermediates, and promote the formation of H₂O₂ (Li X. et al., 2021). Therefore, incorporating metal and non-metal ions in the photocatalyst can improve the photocatalytic synthesis activity of H₂O₂ (Table 3).

TABLE 3

TABLE 3. Activities of photocatalysts with different types of ion doping.

4.1 Metal ion incorporation

Incorporating metal ions in the photocatalyst can improve the photocatalytic synthesis activity of H₂O₂ (Wu et al., 2017; Kim S. et al., 2018; Qu et al., 2018; Feng et al., 2020; Hu et al., 2020). For example, incorporating g-C₃N₄ with K⁺ can be used to photocatalyze water decomposition to produce H₂ and H₂O₂ simultaneously without any sacrificial agent (Figure 5A). K⁺ was coordinated into the big C-N rings by forming the N-bridge, which inhibits the crystal growth of g-C₃N₄, promotes the specific surface area, increases the visible light absorption. More importantly, the CB and VB can be adjusted to the best position (Figure 5B) (Hu et al., 2020). A similar phenomenon of band gap adjustment was observed in g-C₃N₄ co-incorporated with K⁺and Na⁺. After the band gap adjustment, not only CB electrons can reduce O₂ to produce H₂O₂, but also VB holes can oxidize OH⁻ to •OH for H₂O₂ synthesis. This made the generation mechanism of photocatalytic H₂O₂ change from “single channel pathway” (O₂ + 2e⁻ + 2H⁺ → H₂O₂) to “dual channel pathway” (O₂ + 2e⁻ + 2H⁺ → H₂O₂ and •OH+•OH→H₂O₂ reaction pathways) (Qu et al., 2018).

FIGURE 5

FIGURE 5. (A) The schematic diagram of the reactor. (B) The band position of K⁺/g-C₃N₄ (Hu et al., 2020).

4.2 Non-metal ion doping

Non-metal ion doping photocatalyst can effectively improve the synthetic activity of H₂O₂ (Moon et al., 2014; Wei et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2018; Wang L. C. et al., 2019; Ye et al., 2021). For example, halogens (Cl and Br) were incorporated into g-C₃N₄ by hydrothermal method (Figure 6A), and it was found that g-C₃N₄ incorporated with Br was more conducive to H₂O₂ synthesis. This is mainly due to the larger specific surface area and higher charge separation rate after incorporating (Figure 6B) (Zhang et al., 2018). A similar phenomenon was observed in the co-doping of metal ions and non-metals (K and P) (Figure 6C). Compared with g-C₃N₄ incorporated with P (NH₄H₂PO₄/GCN) or K⁺ (K₂SO₄/GCN), the H₂O₂ generation of g-C₃N₄ after co-incorporating was 10.98 times of the former and 5.2 times of the latter, respectively (Figure 6D) (Tian et al., 2019). Similarly, co-doping can also improve the catalytic activity of TiO₂. For example, Fe and S were co-doped into TiO₂ by one-step anodic oxidation, and it was found that the synthesis activity of TiO₂ was improved after doping. This is mainly attributed to the fact that Fe-S co doped TiO₂ had a narrower band gap than pure TiO₂, resulting in a wider visible light absorption range (Momeni and Akbarnia, 2021).

FIGURE 6

FIGURE 6. (A) The SEM images of Br-H-GCN. (B) PL spectra of GCN, Cl-H-GCN and Br-H-GCN (Zhang et al., 2018). (C) TEM images of the CNKP-10 catalysts. (D) UV–vis DRS spectra of the GCN and CNKP-10 catalysts (Tian et al., 2019).

5 Effect of reaction environment on photocatalytic activity

5.1 Effects of temperature and pH

One study investigated the effect of temperature and pH on the photoactivity of H₂O₂ generation by using Au/TiO₂ photocatalyst. The results showed that when pH value (pH = 2) or temperature (5°C) was low, it was more beneficial to improve the photoactivity. The main reason was that the thermal catalytic decomposition of H₂O₂ by Au/TiO₂ can be effectively inhibited at low pH value or low temperature (Teranishi et al., 2016). In another study, it was found that low pH also increased the H₂O₂ synthesis activity of MOFs materials. At the same temperature, when the pH value of MOFs material was as low as 0.3, the formation of H₂O₂ was more favorable. (Isaka et al., 2019).

5.2 Effects of sacrificial agents

For the photocatalytic production of H₂O₂, a certain amount of sacrificial agent is usually added to act as hole scavenger and prevent the recombination of electron–hole pairs. The sacrificial agents were mainly alcohols, which provided hydrogen source for photocatalytic H₂O₂ generation (Kormann et al.). However, the ability of aliphatic alcohols (such as ethanol and methanol, which act as electron donors) to improve photoactivity is limited. The results showed that g-C₃N₄ can effectively synthesize H₂O₂ in deionized water containing oxygen under visible light irradiation. This was due to the efficient formation of 1, 4-endoperoxide on the surface of g-C₃N₄. The addition of ethanol inhibited the one-electron reduction of O₂ (formation of superoxide radicals) and selectively promoted the two-electron reduction of O₂. At the same time, the photodecomposition of hydrogen peroxide formed subsequently was inhibited (Shiraishi et al., 2014b). Kim et al, (2016) also investigated whether the addition of electron donors affects photocatalytic activity. The results showed that when no sacrificial agent (methanol) was added to the system, the generation activity of H₂O₂ was extremely low. This result confirmed that using sacrificial agents such as methanol is important. When methanol (5 vol%) was present in the system, H₂O₂ was generated together with formaldehyde (CH₃OH + O₂ → HCHO + H₂O₂). Meanwhile, ethanol and 2-propanol were tested further, and the results showed that these alcohols worked effectively as electron donors.

However, aliphatic alcohols (such as ethanol and methanol) as electron donors have limited improvement in photocatalytic activity for hydrogen peroxide synthesis. Therefore, some studies have tried to use aromatic alcohol (benzyl alcohol) as a sacrifice agent, compared with fatty alcohol. The results showed that, during photoreaction with aliphatic alcohol, the carbon radical was rapidly removed and leaved superoxo radical (the f→i process in Figure 7), resulting in very low for H₂O₂ formation. In the aqueous phase containing benzyl alcohol, the carbon free radical was stably transformed into an oxygen bridge complex (f→g→h process in Figure 7), which generates a large number of peroxides and improves the synthesis activity of H₂O₂. The results showed that benzyl alcohol as electron donor can improve the reactivity. (Shiraishi et al., 2013).

FIGURE 7

FIGURE 7. Proposed mechanism for photocatalytic oxidation of alcohols with O₂ on the TiO₂ Surface (Shiraishi et al., 2013).

Conclusions and outlook

In future, the photocatalytic H₂O₂ synthesis system still need to improve the reaction activity and sustainability. We should consistently increase the upper limit of H₂O₂ production concentration in long-term photocatalytic reaction. The kinetics of photocatalytic H₂O₂ decomposition should be especially concerned. It is also urgent to develop efficient non-precious cocatalysts with two-electron ORR selectivity.

The activity of H₂O₂ synthesis was very unsatisfactory in most pure water systems. As a compromise for adding sacrificial reagents, the photocatalytic H₂O₂ synthesis system could be coupled with other valuable photocatalytic selective oxidation reaction to maximize its value, such as coupling with selective oxidation or photocatalytic degradation reactions.

Author contributions

Conceptualization, XM, XX, and JZ; writing—original draft preparation, HW, and SH; writing—review and editing, XM and VR; funding acquisition, XM. HW and SH contributed equally to this work. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work received financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51872091), the Natural Science Foundation of Hebei Province (H2022209089), Basic Scientific Research Expenses of Universities in Hebei Province (JYG2021003 and JYG 2022001), and Tangshan Talent Funding Project (A202202007).

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

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