ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Front. Pharmacol., 24 July 2018

Sec. Ethnopharmacology

Volume 9 - 2018 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2018.00789

Ethnobotany of Anti-hypertensive Plants Used in Northern Pakistan

  • 1. Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan

  • 2. Center for Natural Products Lab, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Sichuan, China

  • 3. Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

  • 4. Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration, Bioresource Utilization and Ecological Restoration Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China

  • 5. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

  • 6. Medicinal Aromatic and Poisonous Plants Research Center, College of Pharmacy King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

  • 7. Phytochemistry Department, National Research Centre, Giza, Egypt

Abstract

Hypertension is one of the most important factors responsible for cardiovascular ailments worldwide. It has been observed that herbal products and alternative herbal therapies played a significant role in decreasing hypertension. The aim of the current study is to provide significant ethnopharmacological information, both qualitative and quantitative on medicinal plants related to hypertension from Northern Pakistan. The documented data were quantitatively analyzed for the first time in this area. A total of 250 participants were interviewed through semi-structured discussions and questionnaires. Quantitative indices including FC (Frequency citation), FIV (Family importance value), RFC (Relative frequency of citation) and DCI (Disease Consensus index) were calculated. A total of 192 plant species, belonging to 77 families were reported to be used in treatment of hypertension in Northern Pakistan. The most dominant life form reported was herbs (54%), with decoction (72 reports) and leaves (55.1%) were commonly utilized plant part. Highest FIV was recorded in Lamiaceae (327 FIV). RFC ranged from 0.08 to 1.08% while DCI varied from 0.233 to 0.000. In this study original data was compared with thirty one previous national and international published papers from neighboring region to compare the medicinal uses and obtain some novel plant species. About 42% of the medicinal plant species were reported for the first time in treatment of hypertension in comparison to these 31 published papers. Different phytochemical activities of antihypertensive plants were also reported from literature. This research work documents the traditional knowledge of medicinal plants usage and provides baseline in designing clinical trials and pharmacological analysis for treatment of hypertension.

Introduction

Hypertension is one of the most common cardiovascular diseases that become major health concern in various parts of the world. Arterial hypertension is a chronic medical condition in which the pressure in the arteries raised above 140/90 mmHg (Osamor and Owumi, 2010). There are two types of hypertension, systolic and diastolic hypertension. Based on detected blood pressure (BP) rates there are different groups of hypertension, mild or grade I (BP 140–159/90–99 mm Hg), moderate or grade II (BP 160–179/100–109 mm Hg), and severe or grade III and IV (BP>180–210/110–120 mm Hg) (Salud, 2001).

Family history, extensive use of alcohol, high sodium intake and high sugar intake might be one of the cause hypertension (Eddouks et al., 2002). Smoking and coffee consumption is also reported to be cause of hypertension. Ecological aspects such as lead polluted drinking water and cadmium contamination have also been shown to favor hypertension (Pirkle et al., 1985). The incidences of uncontrolled hypertension occur among individuals of above 50 years (Tee et al., 2010). Each year about half million strokes and more than a million heart attacks are caused due to hypertension (Jaffer and Weissleder, 2005; Sarafidis et al., 2008; Grassi et al., 2013). Many other conditions such as insulin resistance, obesity, kidney failure, nervous system, concomitance, atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases have been found to be related with high blood pressure (Ghosh and Bandyopadhyay, 2007; Heisler et al., 2008). Hypertension is estimated to cause 4.5% of the disease burden globally (World Health Organization, 2002; Cardoso and Salles, 2016).

Hypertension has become a worldwide concern with important scale of morbidity and mortality. It has been observed that 1 billion persons all over the World suffer from hypertension triggering up to 7.1 million casualties per year (Hajjar and Kotchen, 2003; Tahraoui et al., 2007). In Africa particularly in Gabon, it is reported (World Health Organization, 2001) that 26.4% of the inhabitants (26.1% female and 26.6% male) suffered from hypertension (Opie and Seedat, 2005). Similarly the prevalence of hypertension in the Asia-Pacific areas ranges from 7 to 38% in women and from 5 to 47% in men (Lawes et al., 2004). Around the globe, the lowest percentage of people with hypertensions (less than 5.2%) live in rural North India (Kearney et al., 2005).

In Pakistan a health survey (NHSP) between 1990 and 1994 emphasized on the extent of the burden of hypertension in Pakistan. Hypertension affected 18% of adults above 15 years and 33% of adults above 45 years, with 3% suffering from low hypertension at 140/90 mm Hg or below. In Pakistan it is reported that every third person over the above 40 years of ageis affected by hypertension (Saleem et al., 2010). In Ayurvedic and Greek traditional medicinal systems, hypertension was diagnosed by its apparent symptoms. In the current study local healers gave information about symptoms and signs of hypertension and indicated also which other sources of information about hypertension they might have had. The local healers spend much time listening to the patients suffering from any illness, and discussing the possible causes of the disease and the course of treatment with the patients. The perceived causes of hypertension by traditional healers include diet and hereditary causes, as found in other studies (Meli et al., 2009). The traditional healers also described other symptoms such as severe headache, fatigue, chest pain, irregular heart beat among others for a diagnosis of hypertension.

In homeopathy and traditional Chinese herbal medicinal system there are numerous treatments for hypertension (Gress et al., 2000). However, there is still a need for supplementary means for treatment, and also for non-pharmacological management (Gallagher et al., 2006). Such on-pharmacological methods include biofeedback, relaxation, weight reduce, drug treatment and dietary modifications, e.g., reduced salt intake, avoidance of excessive alcohol use and exercise (Farpour-Lambert et al., 2009), and non-smoking (Puddey and Beilin, 2006) for controlling mild hypertension.

The traditional use of plants as medicines started with the evolution of societies (Bandaranayake, 2006). Plants and animals have promising possibilities for drugs discovery (Newman and Cragg, 2007; Sahraie-Rad et al., 2015; Sharifi-Rad et al., 2017; Salehi et al., 2018a). Pure compounds might be helpful for treatment of various ailments (Bandaranayake, 2006; Sharifi-Rad et al., 2017, 2018; Salehi et al., 2018b). Alternative herbal medicines are often preferred over modern medicines (Nuwaha and Muganzi, 2008). According to the WHO about 80% of people rely on traditional medicines (Calixto, 2005). A recent study showed that 25% of modern drug and 75% of new medicines against virulent diseases are obtained from natural plant resources (Bedoya et al., 2009). Hypertension, has become one of the most common non-communicable diseases internationally and it is affecting up to 20% of the world's adult population (Osamor and Owumi, 2010). Educated people have more awareness about the side effects of allopathic drugs so they are more expected to take herbal extracts for treatment of hypertension (Gulla and Singer, 2000).

The aim of this study was to document indigenous knowledge related to herbal remedies for the treatment of hypertension by indigenous communities of Northern Pakistan. It is hoped that these results may help the conservation of traditional medicinal knowledge for future generations.

Materials and methods

Study area

Northern Pakistan includes Swat valley, Hazara division, Manshera, Naran, Dir and other tribal areas (Figure 1). It shares a border with Gilgit Baltistan in the north east, FATA (Federal Administered Tribal Areas) in the West-South, Punjab in the South east, and Azad Jammu and Kashmir in the North. The northern regions of Pakistan are home of its largest mountain ranges, and these cover 72,496 km2. This region includes the foothills of Himalayas, Hindukush and Karakorum ranges (Hamayun, 2003), and harbor particular plant species used as edible plants, medicinal and aromatic plants (Ali and Qaiser, 1986). The temperature varies from 3.4°C to 34.3°C, with winter snowfall in hilly areas (Chevallier et al., 2011). The area has old cultural traditions, festival, dresses and ceremonies. The majority of people speak Pushto, other local languages are Potohari, Gujrati, and Hindko.

Figure 1

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Before conducting interviews, the individual prior informed consent was obtained from all participants. No further ethics approval was required. All work conducted was carried out under the stipulations of the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity. The right to use and authorship of any traditional knowledge of all participants is maintained, and any use of this information, other than for scientific publication, does require additional prior consent of the traditional owners, as well as a consensus on access to benefits resulting from subsequent use.

Field survey and demographic data

Field surveys were conducted during July 2015 to March 2016 in order to document traditional knowledge in different areas of Northern Pakistan. During the field surveys, the indigenous uses of plants for the treatment of hypertension were recorded through interviews with experienced Traditional Health Practitioners (THPs) and local people. The objectives of the study were clearly explained, prior informed oral consent was obtained, and interviews were conducted in local languages to obtain the knowledge of medicinal plants. Semi-structured questionnaires were used (Martin, 1995). Data documentation and field surveys were assessed by using quantitative indices. Questionnaire (Table 1) was mainly focused on the ethnobotanical knowledge of native communities. In these interviews, the first part of the questionnaire was concerned with demographic information of the participants including gender, age, informant category, educational background and residence while second part contain informative questions about the local names of plant, identification, habit, mode of preparation, plant part used, medicinal use and method of administration. Research articles, relevant web pages and books were also studied with the aim to collect data of phytochemical compounds and toxicity present in the plants. Data documentation and field surveys were assessed by using quantitative ethnobotanical indices.

Table 1

S/NoVariablesCategoriesNo. of personPercentages
1.GenderFemale5522
Male19578
2.Informant categoryLocal people17570
Herbalist7530
3.Age group35–45167
45–557228
55–6511446
Above than 654819
4.Educational backgroundIlliterate7831
Completed 6 years of education6526
Completed 10 years of education4618
Completed 12 years of education3112
16 years of education208
Higher education104
5.ResidentUrban7831
Rural17269

Demographic profile of participants.

In this, total of 250 traditional healers (175 local people and 75 herbalists) were interviewed. The local healers diagnosed hypertension by watching for the following symptoms: severe headache, fatigue, chest pain, vision problems, breathing problems, irregular heartbeat, blood in the urine, pounding in the chest, cardiovascular problems and dizziness. The majority of informant falls in the age category of 35–45 years (7%) followed by 45–55 years (28%), 55–65 years (46%) and above than 65 years of age (19%). The participants were divided into different categories on the basis of educational background i-e illiterate (31%), completed 6 years of education (26%), 10 years of education (18%), 12 years of education (12%), and 16 years of education (8%) while (4%) were of higher education (Table 1). Large number of herbal plants were used for treatment of diseases by illiterate villagers showing that in under developed areas people still depend on ethno medicinal plants. Other demographic data was collected with 31% of the participants living in urban and 69% in rural communities (Table 1).

Plant collection and identification

The plants were collected from different areas of northern Pakistan in different seasons during the year. In present study medicinal plants reported by the local informants were identified by vernacular names and collected in the field. These specimens were later reconfirmed for correct identification using the services of senior Plant Taxonomist Professor Dr. Mir Ajab Khan (PhD in Plant Taxonomy), from department of Plant Sciences Quaid-i- Azam University, Islamabad. The collected plant specimens were dried and preserved by following standard herbarium techniques recommended by Jain and Rao (1977). The plant names were verified by using databases such as KEW medicinal plant name services (mpns: http://www.kew.org/mpns). Voucher specimens were deposited in the herbarium, of Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University (ISL), Islamabad.

Quantitative analysis

Results were analyzed using quantitative indices like Disease Consensus Index (DCI), Frequency of Citation (FC), Relative Frequency Citation (RFC) and Family Importance Value (FIV).

Diseases consensus index (DCI)

It is used to evaluate the plant knowledge to cure specific ailment and the degree of consensus that how people recommend plant to treat specific disease. Diseases Consensus Index (DCI) is calculated by using formula followed by Andrade-Cetto et al. (2006).

Where∑(Vxi) = Total sum of the ideal uses for a species. Vx is calculated by using formula Vx = No of questions answered for a species/Total questions asked. The value of Vx ranges from 0 to 1. mVx represents statistical mean of total ideal values (Vxi); CC is correlation coefficient, Pm−0.1 is the compensation factor that analyzes the dispersion of indigenous knowledge considering the mode of preparation and parts used.

Relative frequency of citation (RFC)

The RFC is calculated to determine the level of traditional knowledge about the use of medicinal plants in the study areas. Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) was calculated by using the formula.

Where the number of informants who mentioned the use of the species is “Fc” and “N” is the total number of informants (Tardío and Pardo-De-Santayana, 2008).

Family importance value (FIV)

FIV values show the knowledge of informant about the families of plant species used. FIV of the medicinal plant being calculated by using formula as under (Molares and Ladio, 2009).

High FIV value reveals that there is plenty of knowledge and several authors are more known while less FIV values indicates that there is less awareness about the use of family.

Jaccard index (JI)

Jaccard Index (JI) is calculated by comparing previously published research articles from local, regional and global level by calculating the percentages of cited plants species and their medicinal utilization by using the following formula: where “a” is the number of plants of the region A, “b” is the number of plants of the region B, and “c” is the number of plants common to A and B (Kayani et al., 2015) (Table 2).

Table 2

S. NoStudy areaYearNumber of recorded plant spp. Of aligned areasPlants with similar usesPlants with dissimilar usesTotal spp. Common in both area%age of plant spp. Common in both areasSpecies enlisted only in aligned areasSpecies enlisted only in study area% of spp. Enlisted only in study area% of plants with similar uses% of dissimilar usesJaccard index (JI)Citation
1UK2001300003196100000Mansoor, 2001b
2South Africa20031101100019599.48980.51020400.515464Somova et al., 2003
3Morocco2001901232426.666676617287.75510.51020411.7346911.21495Jouad et al., 2001
4Morocco2002924304346.739134915378.0612221.93878027.04403Eddouks et al., 2002
5Morocco2006643603656.252816081.6326518.36735023.68421Tahraoui et al., 2007
6Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe, Ecuador20072756243010.9090924516684.693883.06122412.24497.874016Tene et al., 2007
7Malaysia2010200002196100000Tee et al., 2010
8DIR Pakistan 20152015461201226.086963418493.877556.12244905.825243Ahmad et al., 2015
9Chennai20111050550519197.448982.5510202.617801Roy, 2011
10Ghana20051020220819498.979591.02040801Abel and Busia, 2005
11Nepal2008301133.33333219599.489800.5102040.510204Kunwar and Bussmann, 2008
12Nepal200684.0222.3809528219498.9795901.0204080.729927Kunwar et al., 2006
13Uttar Pardesh2007200002196100000Verma et al., 2007
14India2011570223.5087725519498.9795901.0204080.809717Kumar et al., 2011
15Nepal2010480112.0833334719599.489800.5102040.414938Kunwar et al., 2010
16Swat, Pakistan2013540151527.777783918192.3469407.6530617.317073Akhtar et al., 2013
17Lesser Himalaya Pakistan2013450336.6666674219398.4693901.5306121.293103Abbasi et al., 2013b
18Swat Pakistan201450066124419096.9387803.0612242.631579Ahmad et al., 2014
19Karakoram range Pakistan20145003364719398.4693901.5306121.265823Bano et al., 2014a
20Pakistan20142603311.538462319398.4693901.5306121.408451Sher et al., 2014
21South East Asia20151830000183196100000Hidayati et al., 2015
22Bhutan2015500005196100000Wangchuk and Tobgay, 2015
23Afghanistan2016720556.9444446719197.4489802.551021.976285Soelberg and Jäger, 2016
24China2016540559.2592594919197.4489802.551022.12766Kang et al., 2016
25Iran19991101100019599.48980.51020400.515464Faraji and Tarkhani, 1999
26Cameroon20021101100019599.48980.51020400.515464Dimo et al., 2002
27Pakistan2017200002196100000Saqib and Janbaz, 2016
28Nigeria2012701301318.571435718393.367356.63265305.726872Gbolade, 2012
29Chinese2014500005196100000Tsai et al., 2014
30Buner Pakistan20112160222210.1851919417488.77551011.224496.358382Sher et al., 2011
31Swat Pakistan201190099108118795.4081604.5918373.474903Ali et al., 2011
Average55.193553.90322647.90322622.4806947.29032188.096895.967741.9914422.0408163.769405

Comparison of present study with previous studies at neighboring, regional and global level.

Results

Diversity of medicinal plants hypertension

Total 192 plant species have been reported for the treatment of hypertension. Plant information with botanical, English, vernacular and family name, mode of utilization, habit, phytochemistry, toxicity, RFC, FIV, and DCI are given in Supplementary Table 1. In this study medicinal plants belonging to 77 plant families and 171 Genera were reported. Among these Asteraceae was observed to be predominant family (23 species), followed by Lamiaceae (19 species), Rosaceae (10 species), Apiaceae and Apocynaceae (8 species each), Boraginaceae and Poaceae (6 species each) Rutaceae (5 species). Fabaceae (4 species), Asclepiadaceae, Caesalpiniaceae, Brassicaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Moraceae, Zygophyllaceae and Solanaceae (3 species each), Amaranthaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Commelinaceae, Crassulaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Lythraceae, Malvaceae, Menispermaceae, Papaveraceae, Polygonaceae, Valerianaceae, Verbenaceae, Vitaceae (2 species each) and rest of families reported to have only (1 species each) used in hypertension treatment (Figure 2).

Figure 2

Plant parts used and life forms

Different plant part used in preparation of herbal recipes include root, stem, leaves, flower, seed, fruit, bark, aerial parts, and whole plant are also used when small herbal plants was practiced. Leaves were most frequently part used (55.1%), followed by fruit (17.8%), seed (14.2%), roots, aerial part and flower (12.7% each), whole plant (5.6%) and bark (3.0%) (Figure 3) (Supplementary Table 1). Essential source of native medicines were as herbs (54%), shrubs (23%), trees (22%) (Figure 4).

Figure 3

Figure 4

Preparation of herbal medicines

Herbal preparations were made by using different preparation modes i.e., infusion, powder, decoction, extract, juice, paste, tea, poultice, scorched, gel, cooked and steamed (Figure 5) (Supplementary Table 1). The most frequently reported mode of preparation was decoction (72 species), followed by extracts (68 species), infusions (53 species), juice (17 species) and Powder (7 species). Infusions were prepared by soaking a plant in water for more than an hour at room temperature, while decoctions were obtained from boiling the plant part in water until the water volume is reduced to half of its original volume. Juice was obtained by extracting and grinding the fresh part of plants and then mix in any liquid. Paste was made by grinding fresh plant material with water. Different dosage of herbal preparations was used by local communities for treatment of various ailments.

Figure 5

Quantitative data analysis

FIV (family importance value)

The most common families of indigenous herbal plant species as represented by its FIV were Lamiaceae (327 FIV) and Asteraceae (302 FIV), followed by Rosaceae (174 FIV), Apiaceae (138 FIV), Fabaceae (117 FIV). The least value of FIV was observed for Acoraceae, Alliaceae, Alocaceae and Cyperaceae (5 FIV) (Figure 6).

Figure 6

Disease-consensus index DCI

In this study DCI value ranges from 0.233 to 0.000. DCI values are found to be the highest in Citrus limon (0.233). Followed by Crataegus aronia (0.071), Citrus aurantifolia (0.063), Crataegus oxycantha (0.048), Coccinia grandis (0.047), Butea monosperma (0.044), Dodonaea viscosa (0.042), Carex baccans (0.034), Caralluma tuberculata (0.025), Allium cepa (0.022), Acorus calamus (0.020), Bidens pilosa (0.019), Gnaphalium uliginosum (0.018), Cissus simsiana (0.017), Amaranthus spinosus (0.015) and the lowest value observed in Syzygium aromaticum (0.000) (Supplementary Table 1).

RFC (relative frequency of citation)

RFC value ranges from 0.08 to 1.08. The highest RFC value was recorded for Bidens biternata (1.08), followed by Marrubium vulgare (0.97), Stevia rebaudiana, Syzygium aromaticum, Rheum ribes, Phytolacca dioica, Heliotropium lasiocarpum, Foeniculum vulgare, Phyllanthus emblica (0.54) and lowest value was observed for Allium cepa (0.08) (Supplementary Table 1).

Systematic reviews of herbal medicines used for hypertension therapies

The ethnobotanical data is compared with 31 published articles on the use of medicinal plants for hypertension. The analysis showed that some medicinal herbal plants are used for same purposes globally, but some novel uses were also recorded. Out of 192 plant species for hypertension, 81 species were reported with similar uses, while 112 species were documented for hypertension for the first time. These newly reported species for hypertension should be further investigated for detailed clinical and phytochemical studies (Supplementary Table 1). Some potential species reported first time against hypertension include Abrus precatorius, Amarathus spinosus, Cissus simsiana, Citrus aurantifolia, Ficus palmata, Senna tora, Teucrium rogleanom, Valeriana officinalis, Ziziphus mauritiana and others.

Phytochemical data of antihypertensive plants

The active phytochemicals of the plants have been shown in (Supplementary Table 1). These phytochemicals have variety of pharmacological activities that are used to treat hypertension. In this study documentation of plants species indicates, few species are pharmacologically assessed in the literature while other plant species needs more screening in future.

Discussion

In communities of Northern Pakistan people rely mostly on herbal medicines for treatment of various diseases. Mostly the herbal remedies are practiced in the rural communities (Ibrar et al., 2007). Most of the local participants who showed the interest in traditional medicinal knowledge belong to the older age group (Ahmad et al., 2015). Local healers used a large number of different herbs for the treatment of hypertension, and seemed to play a relevant role in the management of hypertension in rural communities, which has important implications for health care workers. Majority of the informants stated that the transmission knowledge about usage of medicinal plants was not efficient due to lack of interest shown by the younger people. It was also observed that some people avoid to used traditional medicines due to availability and convenience of allopathic drugs (Kayani et al., 2015).

The most dominant family reported in terms of medicinal plants was Asteraceae. Of about 350,000 species of identified flowering plants, nearly 10% belong to Asteraceae, and almost every environment in different regions (Barker et al., 2008). This fact could possibly describe the usual occurrence of plant family Asteraceae. Alongside the Lamiaceae has maximum proportion in ethno medicine (Amira and Okubadejo, 2007). However, in study area, more species belonging to Apiaceae and Fabaceae were used as reported in previous literature by Asase et al. (2010).

Participants recognize diverse kinds of plant species with a variability of medicinal properties present in a single family (Abbasi et al., 2013a). Another reason of high citation of Lamiaceae and Asteraceae may be their higher occurrence in mountainous areas as reported in earlier studies (Pieroni, 2008; Mustafa et al., 2011).

Among the medicinal plant species herbs were most commonly used, because of the large number of species naturally abundant in these geographical regions (Abbasi et al., 2013a; Butt et al., 2015) and easily accessible to communities residing in these areas (Tabuti et al., 2003; Uniyal et al., 2006; Sanz-Biset et al., 2009). Herbs are easily accessible having high healing potential and yield secondary metabolites having therapeutical properties against diseases (Bano et al., 2014a; Yaseen et al., 2015a). It was noted that herbalists utilized herbs commonly for formulations due to ease in collection and availability (Uniyal et al., 2006).

In this study leaves were the major plant parts used. It was found that leaves preferably used in treatment of ailments due to significant amount of bioactive compounds present in the leaves (Chaudhary et al., 2010; Rashid et al., 2015). Similar results were reported from studies carried out the in previous literature (Mahishi et al., 2005; Abo et al., 2008; Shil et al., 2014) The flower, stem and leaves of different medicinal plants are used for curing various ailments like hypertension, digestive disorders, fever and others (Lev, 2000; Leporatti and Ivancheva, 2003).

Decoction was the most common method of utilization in present study, this result is in accord with the previous studies (Nadembega et al., 2011; Rehecho et al., 2011). In Pakistan most people prefer to use decoctions of herbal medicines (Mahmood et al., 2011; Khan et al., 2015). In our study Mentha longifolia leaf extract made from the leaves are used for treating hypertension this result is similar with previous study of (Hwang et al., 1987) in which aqueous-methanolic extract of this plant, showed a significant decrease in the blood pressure and heart rate. Tinospora malabarica, Sonchus asper, Cestrum racemosum, Callisia gracilis, and Cymbopogon citratus were also used against hypertension in other areas (Poffenberger and Singh, 1992; Steyn et al., 2001; Dharmananda, 2012). In high altitudes areas in winter season, dried powder is favored for curing different diseases (Ahmad et al., 2014; Bano et al., 2014b; Kayani et al., 2014). The most common method of administration of herbal drugs was oral (70%), like in other areas (Hammond et al., 1998; De-La-Cruz et al., 2007). Herbal medicines are mostly bitter in taste and prepared by mixing with sugar and honey (Sadeghi et al., 2014). In study area, the dosage of herbal remedies varied, like found in others studies (Ahmed et al., 2015). Many plants have been reported in previous literature for treating hypertension, blood pressure diseases such as Allium sativum, Berberis vulgaris, Coriandrum sativum and various other similar plants have been identified in present study are reported for curing hypertension (Sher et al., 2016).

DCI was evaluated in present study to analyze the disease consensus of informants for traditional remedies of hypertension (Choudhury et al., 2015; Yaseen et al., 2015b). Species having higher DCI value can be preferred for further future studies (Andrade-Cetto and Wiedenfeld, 2011). Pharmacological studies show that Allium sativum, Lepidium sativum, and Ocimum basilicum, Mentha sp., Trigonella foenum-graecum, Urtica dioica, Olea species, and Eucalyptus globulus are effective species in treating hypertension (Jouad et al., 2001; El-Hilaly et al., 2003; Gurib-Fakim, 2006). The root infusion of Acorus calamus is used as plant for anti-hypertension properties in this study which is in accord with the study of (Patel et al., 2012) who reported antihypertensive effect of rhizome part of Acorus calamus on renal artery occlusion induced hypertension in rats.

RFC refers the local importance of each plant species with reference to informant who cited this specie (Vitalini et al., 2013). The reason for high RFC value may be the easy availability of species, wide distribution and high medicinal properties for treating various ailments (Mukherjee and Wahile, 2006). Foeniculum vulgare, Nerium oleander, Olea europaea, Allium sativum, Mentha sp., Eucalyptus globulus, Nigella sativa, and Lepidium sativum were documented for the first time for treating hypertension (Eddouks et al., 2002; Zaoui et al., 2002) (Supplementary Table 1).

The comparison of our results shows broad variations with previous studies regarding JI when the findings of these studies were compared with the present work (Leonti et al., 2003; Ladio et al., 2007). In our study JI varies from 0 to 27.04%. The highest degree of similarity was recorded with (Eddouks et al., 2002; Tahraoui et al., 2007), while lowest similarity was found with (Mansoor, 2001a; Somova et al., 2003; Abel and Busia, 2005; Ahmad et al., 2005; Tee et al., 2010). The phytochemicals have variety of pharmacological activities that are used to treat hypertension. The study indicates many important medicinal plant species which are pharmacologically active but still unexplored and need to be explored further.

Conclusion

The present study gave an overview about traditional medicinal knowledge of plants as anti-hypertensive drug. 192 medicinal plant species belonging to 77 families were reported to be in present study to treat hypertension. It was first attempt to document ethno-botanical information using quantitative approaches on hypertension in the study area. The leaves were reported to be most used plant part (55.1%) while herbs were the most used life form (54%) and decoction being the most common mode of administration (72 reports). The quantitative approaches such as Family importance value (FIV), Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) and Disease Consensus index (DCI) were used to assess the importance of traditional knowledge obtained in the study used in the present study. Highest DCI and FIV values were reported for Rutaceae and Lamiaceae. Meanwhile there are so many of these naturally occurring plant substances cover a wide range they offers a good opportunity of delivering useful medicinal complexes for the management of hypertension. To the best of our knowledge, Ficus palmata, Senna tora, Teucrium polium, Valeriana officinalis, and Ziziphus mauritiana were recorded for the first time as anti-hypertensive medicinal drugs. The study provides basic leads for future pharmacological and phytochemical investigation to explore the potential of such plants in herbal drug discovery. It is thus recommended that strategies for cultivation and conservation of important species be designed.

Statements

Author contributions

KM carried out field surveys and data collection. MZ and NR helped in analysis of data while MA and RB revised the manuscript critically to its present form. AT, RU, AA, AS, SS, and SNS helped in the revision of the manuscript and helps in checking the consistency of data. All authors read the final manuscript and agreed to its submission.

Acknowledgments

Authors acknowledge the continuous efforts of the Research Centre, College of Pharmacy, and Deanship of Scientific Research at King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The authors are thankful to all key medicinal plant practitioners and informants for sharing their valuable knowledge on medicinal flora.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Supplementary material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphar.2018.00789/full#supplementary-material

References

  • 1

    AbbasiA. M.KhanM. A.KhanN.ShahM. H. (2013a). Ethnobotanical survey of medicinally important wild edible fruits species used by tribal communities of lesser Himalayas-Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol.148, 528–536. 10.1016/j.jep.2013.04.050

  • 2

    AbbasiA. M.KhanM. A.ShahM. H.ShahM. M.PervezA.AhmadM. (2013b). Ethnobotanical appraisal and cultural values of medicinally important wild edible vegetables of lesser Himalayas-Pakistan. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed.9:66. 10.1186/1746-4269-9-66

  • 3

    Abdel-SattarE.HarrazF. M.Al-AnsariS. M.El-MekkawyS.IchinoC.KiyoharaH.et al. (2008). Acylated pregnane glycosides from Caralluma tuberculata and their antiparasitic activity. Phytochemistry69, 2180–2186. 10.1016/j.phytochem.2008.05.017

  • 4

    AbelC.BusiaK. (2005). An exploratory ethnobotanicastudy of the practice of herbal medicine by the Akan peoples of Ghana. Alter. Med. Rev. J. clin. Ther.10, 112–122.

  • 5

    AboK. A.Fred-JaiyesimiA. A.JaiyesimiA. E. (2008). Ethnobotanical studies of medicinal plants used in the management of diabetes mellitus in South Western Nigeria. J. Ethnopharmacol.115, 67–71. 10.1016/j.jep.2007.09.005

  • 6

    AbubackerM.RamanathanR. (2012). Antibacterial activities of argemone mexicana L. (Papavaraceae) leaf extract on pathogenic bacterial strains. Drug Invent. Today4, 385–387. 10.1016/S2221-1691(12)60316-5

  • 7

    AbukakarM.UkwuaniA.ShehuR. (2008). Phytochemical screening and antibacterial activity of Tamarindus indica pulp extract. Asian. J. Biochem.3, 134–138. 10.3923/ajb.2008.134.138

  • 8

    AdebayoM.AdeboyeJ.AjaiyeobaE. (2004). Preliminary phytochemical investigation and diuretic studies of Alstonia boonei stem bark in male Wistar rats. J. Nat. Remedies4, 179–182. 10.18311/jnr/2004/184

  • 9

    AdeniyiS.OrjiekweC.EhiagbonareJ.ArimahB. (2010). Preliminary phytochemical analysis and insecticidal activity of ethanolic extracts of four tropical plants (Vernonia amygdalina, Sida acuta, Ocimum gratissimum and Telfaria occidentalis) against beans weevil (Acanthscelides obtectus). Int. J. Phy. Sci.5, 753–762.

  • 10

    AhameethunisaA. R.HopperW. (2012). In vitro antimicrobial activity on clinical microbial strains and antioxidant properties of Artemisia parviflora. Ann. Clin. Microbiol. Antimicrob.11:30. 10.1186/1476-0711-11-30

  • 11

    AhmadA.MisraL. (1997). Isolation of herniarin and other constituents from Matricaria chamomilla flowers. Int. J. Pharmacognosy35, 121–125. 10.1076/phbi.35.2.121.13280

  • 12

    AhmadF.TawanC. (2002). Phytochemical Studies on Piper Umbellatum L. Sarawak: ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC).

  • 13

    AhmadI.BegA. Z. (2001). Antimicrobial and phytochemical studies on 45 Indian medicinal plants against multi-drug resistant human pathogens. J. Ethnopharmacol.74, 113–123. 10.1016/S0378-8741(00)00335-4

  • 14

    AhmadL.SemotiukA.ZafarM.AhmadM.SultanaS.LiuQ. R.et al. (2015). Ethnopharmacological documentation of medicinal plants used for hypertension among the local communities of DIR Lower, Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol.175, 138–146. 10.1016/j.jep.2015.09.014

  • 15

    AhmadM.SultanaS.Fazl-I-HadiS.Ben HaddaT.RashidS.ZafarM.et al. (2014). An Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in high mountainous region of Chail valley (District Swat-Pakistan). J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed.10, 4269–4210. 10.1186/1746-4269-10-36

  • 16

    AhmadS.LatifA.QasmiI. A.AminK. M. (2005). An experimental study of sexual function improving effect of Myristica fragrans Houtt.(nutmeg). BMC Complement. Altern. Med.5:16. 10.1186/1472-6882-5-16

  • 17

    AhmadianiA.JavanM.SemnanianS.BaratE.KamalinejadM. (2001). Anti-inflammatory and antipyretic effects of Trigonella foenum-graecum leaves extract in the rat. J. Ethnopharmacol.75, 283–286. 10.1016/S0378-8741(01)00187-8

  • 18

    AhmedM. F.RaoA. S.AhemadS. R.IbrahimM. (2012). Phytochemical studies and antioxidant activity of Melia azedarach Linn leaves by DPPH scavenging assay. Int. J. Pharm. Appl.3, 271–276.

  • 19

    AhmedN.MahmoodA.AshrafA.BanoA.TahirS. S.MahmoodA. (2015). Ethnopharmacological relevance of indigenous medicinal plants from district Bahawalnagar, Punjab, Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol.175, 109–123. 10.1016/j.jep.2015.08.011

  • 20

    AkhtarN.RashidA.MuradW.BergmeierE. (2013). Diversity and use of ethno-medicinal plants in the region of Swat, North Pakistan. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed.9:25. 10.1186/1746-4269-9-25

  • 21

    AkubugwoI.ObasiN.ChinyereG.UgboguA. (2008). Mineral and phytochemical contents in leaves of Amaranthus hybridus L and Solanum nigrum L. subjected to different processing methods. African. J. Biochem. Res. 2, 040–044.

  • 22

    Al-GhaithiF.El-RidiM. R.AdeghateE.AmiriM. H. (2004). Biochemical effects of Citrullus colocynthis in normal and diabetic rats. Mol. Cell. Biochem.261, 143–149. 10.1023/B:MCBI.0000028749.63101.cc

  • 23

    Al-TamemeH. J.HameedI. H.IdanS. A.HadiM. Y. (2015). Biochemical analysis of Origanum vulgare seeds by fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). J. Pharmacognosy Phytother.7, 221–237. 10.5897/JPP2015.0362

  • 24

    AliB. H.BlundenG.TaniraM. O.NemmarA. (2008). Some phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological properties of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe): a review of recent research. Food. Chem. Toxicol. 46, 409–420. 10.1016/j.fct.2007.09.085

  • 25

    AliB. H.WabelN.BlundenG. (2005). Phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological aspects of Hibiscus sabdariff a L.: a review. Phytother. Res.19, 369–375. 10.1002/ptr.1628

  • 26

    AliH.SannaiJ.SherH.RashidA. (2011). Ethnobotanical profile of some plant resources in Malam Jabba valley of Swat, Pakistan. J. Med. Plants Res.5, 4676–4687.

  • 27

    AliS. I.QaiserM. (1986). A phytogeographical analysis of the phanerogams of Pakistan and Kashmir. Proc. R. Soc. Edinb. Biolsci. 89, 89–101. 10.1017/S0269727000008939

  • 28

    AlokS.JainS. K.VermaA.KumarM.MahorA.SabharwalM. (2013). Plant profile, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Asparagus racemosus (Shatavari): A review. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Dis.3, 242–251. 10.1016/S2222-1808(13)60049-3

  • 29

    AlqasoumiS. I.BasudanO. A.Al-RehailyA. J.Abdel-KaderM. S. (2014). Phytochemical and pharmacological study of Ficus palmata growing in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Pharm. J.22, 460–471. 10.1016/j.jsps.2013.12.010

  • 30

    AmiraO. C.OkubadejoN. U. (2007). Frequency of complementary and alternative medicine utilization in hypertensive patients attending an urban tertiary care centre in Nigeria. BMC Complement. Altern. Med.7:30. 10.1186/1472-6882-7-30

  • 31

    Andrade-CettoA.Becerra-JiménezJ.Martínez-ZuritaE.Ortega-LarroceaP.HeinrichM. (2006). Disease-consensus Index as a tool of selecting potential hypoglycemic plants in Chikindzonot, Yucatán, México. J. Ethnopharmacol.107, 199–204. 10.1016/j.jep.2006.03.005

  • 32

    Andrade-CettoA.WiedenfeldH. (2011). Anti-hyperglycemic effect of Opuntia streptacantha Lem. J. Ethnopharmacol.133, 940–943. 10.1016/j.jep.2010.11.022

  • 33

    AnwarF.Abdul QayyumH. M.Ijaz HussainA.IqbalS. (2010). Antioxidant activity of 100% and 80% methanol extracts from barley seeds (Hordeum vulgare L.): stabilization of sunflower oil. Grasas y Aceites61, 237–243. 10.3989/gya.087409

  • 34

    AnwarF.LatifS.AshrafM.GilaniA. H. (2007). Moringa oleifera: a food plant with multiple medicinal uses. Phytother. Res.21, 17–25. 10.1002/ptr.2023

  • 35

    ArunkumarS.MuthuselvamM. (2009). Analysis of phytochemical constituents and antimicrobial activities of Aloe vera L. against clinical pathogens. World J. Agri. Sci.5, 572–576.

  • 36

    AsaoluM.OyeyemiO.OlanlokunJ. (2009). Chemical compositions, phytochemical constituents and in vitro biological activity of various extracts of Cymbopogon citratus. Pak. J. Nutr.8, 1920–1922. 10.3923/pjn.2009.1920.1922

  • 37

    AsaseA.AkweteyG. A.AchelD. G. (2010). Ethnopharmacological use of herbal remedies for the treatment of malaria in the Dangme West District of Ghana. J. Ethnopharmacol.129, 367–376. 10.1016/j.jep.2010.04.001

  • 38

    AshafaA. O.SunmonuT. O.AfolayanA. J. (2010). Toxicological evaluation of aqueous leaf and berry extracts of Phytolacca dioica L. in male Wistar rats. Food Chem. Toxicol. 48, 1886–1889. 10.1016/j.fct.2010.04.029

  • 39

    AyatollahiS.KobarfardF.AsgarpanahJ.RoodsariM. R.FanaiG.ChoudharyM. I. (2015). Diterpenoids of Otostegia persica (Burm.) Boiss. DARU J. Pharm. Sci.17, 290–293.

  • 40

    AyoolaP.AdeyeyeA. (2010). Phytochemical and nutrient evaluation of Carica papaya (pawpaw) leaves. IJRRAS5, 325–328.

  • 41

    BahramsoltaniR.RostamiasrabadiP.ShahpiriZ.MarquesA. M.RahimiR.FarzaeiM. H. (2018). Aloysia citrodora Paláu (Lemon verbena): a review of phytochemistry and pharmacology. J. Ethnopharmacol. 22, 34–51. 10.1016/j.jep.2018.04.021

  • 42

    BandaranayakeW. M. (2006). Quality control, screening, toxicity, and regulation of herbal drugs. Modern phytomedicine. Turning Med. Plants Drugs10, 25–57. 10.1002/9783527609987.ch2

  • 43

    BanoA.AhmadM.Ben HaddaT.SaboorA.SultanaS.ZafarM.et al. (2014a). Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of plants used in the skardu valley at high altitude of Karakoram-Himalayan range, Pakistan. J. Ethnobiol. Eethnomed.10:43. 10.1186/1746-4269-10-43

  • 44

    BanoA.AhmadM.ZafarM.SultanaS.RashidS.KhanM. A. (2014b). Ethnomedicinal knowledge of the most commonly used plants from Deosai Plateau, Western Himalayas, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol.155, 1046–1052. 10.1016/j.jep.2014.05.045

  • 45

    BansoA.AdeyemoS. (2006). Phytochemical screening and antimicrobial assessment of Abutilon mauritianum, Bacopa monnifera and Datura stramonium. Biokemistri18, 39–44.

  • 46

    BarkerM. S.KaneN. C.MatvienkoM.KozikA.MichelmoreR. W.KnappS. J.et al. (2008). Multiple paleopolyploidizations during the evolution of the compositae reveal parallel patterns of duplicate gene retention after millions of years. Mol. Biol. Evol.25, 2445–2455. 10.1093/molbev/msn187

  • 47

    BasmaA. A.ZakariaZ.LathaL. Y.SasidharanS. (2011). Antioxidant activity and phytochemical screening of the methanol extracts of Euphorbia hirta L. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Med.4, 386–390. 10.1016/S1995-7645(11)60109-0

  • 48

    BedoyaL. M.BermejoP.AbadM. J. (2009). Anti-infectious activity in the cistaceae family in the Iberian Peninsula. Mini. Rev. Med. Chem.9, 519–525. 10.2174/138955709788167600

  • 49

    BettaiebI.BourgouS.WannesW. A.HamrouniI.LimamF.MarzoukB. (2010). Essential oils, phenolics, and antioxidant activities of different parts of cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.). J. Agric. Food Chem.58, 10410–10418. 10.1021/jf102248j

  • 50

    BhattI. D.DauthalP.RawatS.GairaK. S.JugranA.RawalR. S.et al. (2012). Characterization of essential oil composition, phenolic content, and antioxidant properties in wild and planted individuals of Valeriana jatamansi Jones. Sci. Hortic.136, 61–68. 10.1016/j.scienta.2011.12.032

  • 51

    BhoreN.PishawikarS.MoreH. (2012). Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of flowers (inflorescence) of Saccharum officinarum linn. Int. J. Res. Pharm. Biomed. Sci. 3, 620–624.

  • 52

    Brand-WilliamsW.CuvelierM.BersetC. (1995). Use of a free radical method to evaluate antioxidant activity. LWT-Food Sci. Tech.28, 25–30. 10.1016/S0023-6438(95)80008-5

  • 53

    BrandãoM. G.KrettliA. U.SoaresL. S.NeryC. G.MarinuzziH. C. (1997). Antimalarial activity of extracts and fractions from Bidens pilosa and other Bidens species (Asteraceae) correlated with the presence of acetylene and flavonoid compounds. J. Ethnopharmacol.57, 131–138. 10.1016/S0378-8741(97)00060-3

  • 54

    BrittoA.GracelinH. (2011). Phytochemical analysis and antibacterial activity of Momordica charantia descourt., a know n medicinal plant. J. Basic and Appl. Biol.5, 307–311.

  • 55

    ButtM. A.AhmadM.FatimaA.SultanaS.ZafarM.YaseenG.et al. (2015). Ethnomedicinal uses of plants for the treatment of snake and scorpion bite in Northern Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol.168, 164–181. 10.1016/j.jep.2015.03.045

  • 56

    BabajideJ. O.MabuselaW. T.GreenI. R. (2015). Some alkaloids and flavonoids from Cissampelos capensis. J. Med. Plants Res.9, 16–29. 10.5897/JMPR2014.5659

  • 57

    BilleterM.MeierB.SticherO. (1991). 8-Hydroxyflavonoid glucuronides from Malva sylvestris. Phytochemistry30, 987–990. 10.1016/0031-9422(91)85292-8

  • 58

    BischoffT. A.KelleyC. J.KarchesyY.LaurantosM.Nguyen-DinhP.ArefiA. G. (2004). Antimalarial activity of Lactucin and Lactucopicrin: sesquiterpene lactones isolated from Cichorium intybus L. J. Ethnopharmacol.95, 455–457. 10.1016/j.jep.2004.06.031

  • 59

    BukhariN.ChoiJ.JeonC.ParkH.KimW.KhanM.et al. (2008). Phytochemical studies of the alkaloids from Peganum harmala. Appl. Chem.12, 101–104.

  • 60

    BystromL. M.LewisB. A.BrownD. L.RodriguezE.ObendorfR. L. (2009). Phenolics, sugars, antimicrobial and free-radical-scavenging activities of Melicoccus bijugatus Jacq. fruits from the Dominican Republic and Florida. Plant Foods Human Nutr.64, 160–166. 10.1007/s11130-009-0119-y

  • 61

    CalişkanO.GündüzK.SerçeS.TopluC.KamilogluO.SengülM. (2012). Phytochemical characterization of several hawthorn (Crataegus spp.) species sampled from the Eastern Mediterranean region of Turkey. Pharmacogn. Mag.8:16. 10.4103/0973-1296.93305

  • 62

    CalixtoJ. B. (2005). Twenty-five years of research on medicinal plants in Latin America: a personal view. J. Ethnopharmacol.100, 131–134. 10.1016/j.jep.2005.06.004

  • 63

    CardosoC. R.SallesG. F. (2016). Prognostic importance of ambulatory blood pressure monitoring in resistant hypertension: is it all that matters?Curr. Hypertens. Rep.18:85. 10.1007/s11906-016-0693-y

  • 64

    ChaudharyG.GoyalS.PooniaP. (2010). Lawsonia inermis Linnaeus: a phytopharmacological review. Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Drug Res.2, 91–98.

  • 65

    ChenY.-Y.ChangF.-R.WuY.-C. (1996). Isoquinoline alkaloids and lignans from Rollinia mucosa. J. Nat. Prod.59, 904–906. 10.1021/np960414z

  • 66

    ChevallierP.ArnaudY.AhmadB. (2011). Snow cover dynamics and hydrological regime of the Hunza River basin, Karakoram Range, Northern Pakistan. Hydrol. Earth Sys. Sci.15, 2259–2274.

  • 67

    ChoudhuryP. R.ChoudhuryM. D.NingthoujamS. S.MitraA.NathD.TalukdarA. D. (2015). Plant utilization against digestive system disorder in Southern Assam, India. J. Ethnopharmacol.175, 192–197. 10.1016/j.jep.2015.09.020

  • 68

    ChungM.LeiB.Li-ChanE. (2005). Isolation and structural characterization of the major protein fraction from NorMan flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.). Food Chem.90, 271–279. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2003.07.038

  • 69

    CorsiG.LokarL.PagniA. M. (1984). Biological and phytochemical aspects of Valeriana officinalis. Biochem. Sys. Ecol.12, 57–62. 10.1016/0305-1978(84)90011-5

  • 70

    Da SilvaK. L.BiavattiM. W.LeiteS. N.YunesR. A.Delle MonacheF.Cechinel FilhoV. (2000). Phytochemical and pharmacognostic investigation of Bauhinia forficata link (Leguminosae). Zeitschrift Naturforschung C55, 478–480. 10.1515/znc-2000-5-627

  • 71

    DahiruD.WilliamE.NadroM. (2005). Protective effect of Ziziphus mauritiana leaf extract on carbon tetrachloride-induced liver injury. Afr. J. Biotechnol.4, 1177–1179.

  • 72

    Dall'acquaS.CervellatiR.LoiM. C.InnocentiG. (2008). Evaluation of in vitro antioxidant properties of some traditional Sardinian medicinal plants: investigation of the high antioxidant capacity of Rubus ulmifolius. Food Chem.106, 745–749.

  • 73

    DanielV.DaniangI.NimyelN. (2011). Phytochemical analysis and mineral elements composition of Ocimum basilicum obtained in JOS METROPOLIS, Plateau state Nigeria. IJET-IJENS11, 161–165.

  • 74

    De-La-CruzH.VilcapomaG.ZevallosP. A. (2007). Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the Andean people of Canta, Lima, Peru. J. Ethnopharmacol.111, 284–294. 10.1016/j.jep.2006.11.018

  • 75

    DhaleD.MogleU. (2011). Phytochemical screening and antibacterial activity of Phyllanthus emblica (L.). Sci. Res. Rep. 1:138–142.

  • 76

    DharmanandaS. (2012). Bidens: a popular remedy escapes notice of western practitioners. Inst. Tradit. Med.

  • 77

    DimoT.RakotonirinaS. V.TanP. V.AzayJ.DongoE.CrosG. (2002). Leaf methanol extract of Bidens pilosa prevents and attenuates the hypertension induced by high-fructose diet in Wistar rats. J. Ethnopharmacol.83, 183–191. 10.1016/S0378-8741(02)00162-9

  • 78

    DindaB.GoshB.ArimaS.SatoN.HarigayaY. (2004). Phytochemical investigation of Gomphrena globosa aerial parts. Ind. J. Chem. Sect. B Organ. Chem.43, 2223–2227.

  • 79

    DittbrennerA.LohwasserU.MockH.-P.BörnerA. (2007). Molecular and phytochemical studies of Papaver somniferum in the context of infraspecific classification, in V International Symposium on the Taxonomy of Cultivated Plants, Vol. 799 (Gatersleben), 81–88.

  • 80

    EbanaR. U.MadunaguB. E.EkpeE. D.OtungI. N. (1991). Microbiological exploitation of cardiac glycosides and alkaloids from Garcinia kola, Borreria ocymoides, Kola nitida and Citrus aurantifolia. J. Appl. Microbiol.71, 398–401.

  • 81

    EberhardtM. V.LeeC. Y.LiuR. H. (2000). Nutrition: antioxidant activity of fresh apples. Nature405, 903–904. 10.1038/35016151

  • 82

    EddouksM.MaghraniM.LemhadriA.OuahidiM. L.JouadH. (2002). Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants used for the treatment of diabetes mellitus, hypertension and cardiac diseases in the south-east region of Morocco (Tafilalet). J. Ethnopharmacol.82, 97–103. 10.1016/S0378-8741(02)00164-2

  • 83

    EdeogaH.IkemC.JägerA. (2002). Tannins, saponins and calcium oxalate crystals from Nigerian species of Boerhavia L. (Nyctaginaceae). South Afr. J. Bot.68, 386–388. 10.1016/S0254-6299(15)30403-8

  • 84

    El-HilalyJ.HmammouchiM.LyoussiB. (2003). Ethnobotanical studies and economic evaluation of medicinal plants in Taounate province (Northern Morocco). J. Ethnopharmacol.86, 149–158. 10.1016/S0378-8741(03)00012-6

  • 85

    Erosa-RejónG.Peña-RodríguezL. M.SternerO. (2009). Secondary metabolites from Heliotropium angiospermum. J. Mex. Chem. Soc.53, 44–47.

  • 86

    FarajiM. H.TarkhaniA. H. (1999). The effect of sour tea (Hibiscus sabdariffa) on essential hypertension. J. Ethnopharmacol.65, 231–236. 10.1016/S0378-8741(98)00157-3

  • 87

    Farpour-LambertN. J.AggounY.MarchandL. M.MartinX. E.HerrmannF. R.BeghettiM. (2009). Physical activity reduces systemic blood pressure and improves early markers of atherosclerosis in pre-pubertal obese children. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.54, 2396–2406. 10.1016/j.jacc.2009.08.030

  • 88

    FattouchS.CaboniP.CoroneoV.TuberosoC. I.AngioniA.DessiS.et al. (2007). Antimicrobial activity of Tunisian quince (Cydonia oblonga Miller) pulp and peel polyphenolic extracts. J. Agric. Food Chem.55, 963–969. 10.1021/jf062614e

  • 89

    GallagherM.PerkovicV.ChalmersJ. (2006). Diuretics: a modern day treatment option?(Review Article). Nephrology11, 419–427. 10.1111/j.1440-1797.2006.00598.x

  • 90

    GboladeA. (2012). Ethnobotanical study of plants used in treating hypertension in Edo State of Nigeria. J. Ethnopharmacol.144, 1–10. 10.1016/j.jep.2012.07.018

  • 91

    GenigA. Y.LadnayaL. Y. (1980). Phytochemical investigation of Filipendula ulmaria Maxim. and Filipendula hexapetala Gilib. of Lvov region flora. Farmatsevtichnii Zhurnal (Kiev)1, 50–52.

  • 92

    GermanóM. P.De PasqualeR.D'angeloV.CataniaS.SilvariV.CostaC. (2002). Evaluation of extracts and isolated fraction from Capparis spinosa L. buds as an antioxidant source. J. Agric. Food Chem.50, 1168–1171. 10.1021/jf010678d

  • 93

    GharzouliK.KhennoufS.AmiraS.GharzouliA. (1999). Effects of aqueous extracts from Quercus ilex l. root bark, Punica granatum l. fruit peel and Artemisia herba-alba Asso leaves on ethanol-induced gastric damage in rats. Phytother. Res.13, 42–45.

  • 94

    GhosalS. (1985). Steryl glycosides and acyl steryl glycosides from Musa paradisiaca. Phytochemistry24, 1807–1810. 10.1016/S0031-9422(00)82556-X

  • 95

    GhoshJ.BandyopadhyayA. (2007). Comparative evaluation of obesity measures: relationship with blood pressures and hypertension. Singapore Med. J.48, 232–235.

  • 96

    GilaniS. A.KikuchiA.ShinwariZ. K.KhattakZ. I.WatanabeK. N. (2007). Phytochemical, pharmacological and ethnobotanical studies of Rhazya stricta Decne. Phytother. Res.21, 301–307. 10.1002/ptr.2064

  • 97

    GokaviS. S.MalleshiN. G.GuoM. (2004). Chemical composition of garden cress (Lepidium sativum) seeds and its fractions and use of bran as a functional ingredient. Plant Foods Human Nutr.59, 105–111. 10.1007/s11130-004-4308-4

  • 98

    González-MolinaE.Domínguez-PerlesR.MorenoD. A.García-VigueraC. (2010). Natural bioactive compounds of Citrus limon for food and health. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal.51, 327–345. 10.1016/j.jpba.2009.07.027

  • 99

    GovindasamyC.SrinivasanR. (2012). In vitro antibacterial activity and phytochemical analysis of Catharanthus roseus (Linn.) G. Don. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed.2, S155–S158. 10.1016/S2221-1691(12)60148-8

  • 100

    GraceO.LightM.LindseyK.MulhollandD.Van StadenJ.JagerA.et al. (2002). Antibacterial activity and isolation of active compounds from fruit of the traditional African medicinal tree Kigelia africana. South Afr. J. Bot.68, 220–222. 10.1016/S0254-6299(15)30424-5

  • 101

    GrandeM.TorresP.PieraF.BellidoI. S. (1992). Triterpenoids from Dittrichia viscosa. Phytochemistry31, 1826–1828. 10.1016/0031-9422(92)83159-V

  • 102

    GrassiG.BombelliM.SeravalleG.BrambillaG.Dell'oroR.ManciaG. (2013). Role of ambulatory blood pressure monitoring in resistant hypertension. Curr. Hypertens. Rep.15, 232–237. 10.1007/s11906-013-0349-0.

  • 103

    GrossoC.VinholesJ.SilvaL. R.PinhoP. G. D.GonçalvesR. F.ValentãoP.et al. (2011). Chemical composition and biological screening of Capsella bursa-pastoris. Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia21, 635–643. 10.1590/S0102-695X2011005000107

  • 104

    GressT. W.NietoF. J.ShaharE.WoffordM. R.BrancatiF. L. (2000). Hypertension and antihypertensive therapy as risk factors for type 2 diabetes mellitus. N. Engl. J. Med.342, 905–912. 10.1056/NEJM200003303421301

  • 105

    GuendezR.KallithrakaS.MakrisD. P.KefalasP. (2005). An analytical survey of the polyphenols of seeds of varieties of grape (Vitis vinifera) cultivated in Greece: implications for exploitation as a source of value-added phytochemicals. Phytochem. Anal.16, 17–23. 10.1002/pca.804

  • 106

    GülçinI.KüfreviogluO. I.OktayM.BüyükokurogluM. E. (2004). Antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiulcer and analgesic activities of nettle (Urtica dioica L.). J. Ethnopharmacol.90, 205–215. 10.1016/j.jep.2003.09.028

  • 107

    GulfrazM.SadiqA.TariqH.ImranM.QureshiR.ZeenatA. (2011). Phytochemical analysis and antibacterial activity of Eruca sativa seed. Pak. J. Bot.43, 1351–1359.

  • 108

    GullaJ.SingerA. J. (2000). Use of alternative therapies among emergency department patients. Ann. Emerg. Med.35, 226–228. 10.1016/S0196-0644(00)70072-2

  • 109

    GuptaR. K.BajracharyaG. B.JhaR. N. (2014). Antibacterial activity, cytotoxicity, antioxidant capacity and phytochemicals of Rheum australe rhizomes of Nepal. J. Pharmacognosy and Phytochem.2, 125–128.

  • 110

    GuptaV.MittalP. (2010). Phytochemical and pharmacological potential of Nerium oleander. Pharm. Sci. Res.1, 21–27.

  • 111

    Gurib-FakimA. (2006). Medicinal plants: traditions of yesterday and drugs of tomorrow. Mol. Aspects Med.27, 1–93. 10.1016/j.mam.2005.07.008

  • 112

    HajjarI.KotchenT. A. (2003). Trends in prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension in the United States, 1988-2000. JAMA290, 199–206. 10.1001/jama.290.2.199

  • 113

    HamayunM. (2003). Ethnobotanical studies of some useful shrubs and trees of District Buner, NWFP, Pakistan. J. Ethnob. Leaflets2003:12. Available online at: http://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/ebl/vol2003/iss1/12

  • 114

    HammondG. B.FernándezI. D.VillegasL. F.VaisbergA. J. (1998). A survey of traditional medicinal plants from the Callejon de Huaylas, department of Ancash, Peru. J. Ethnopharmacol.61, 17–30. 10.1016/S0378-8741(98)00009-9

  • 115

    HarisaranrajR.SureshK.SaravanababuS. (2009). Evaluation of the chemical composition Rauwolfia serpentina and Ephedra vulgaris. Adv. Biol. Res. (Rennes).3, 174–178.

  • 116

    HayesJ.AllenP.BruntonN.O'gradyM.KerryJ. (2011). Phenolic composition and in vitro antioxidant capacity of four commercial phytochemical products: Olive leaf extract (Olea europaea L.), lutein, sesamol and ellagic acid. Food Chem.126, 948–955. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.11.092

  • 117

    HeislerJ.GlibertP.BurkholderJ.AndersonD.CochlanW.DennisonW.et al. (2008). Eutrophication and harmful algal blooms: a scientific consensus. Harmful Algae8, 3–13. 10.1016/j.hal.2008.08.006

  • 118

    HajhashemiV.GhannadiA.SharifB. (2003). Anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties of the leaf extracts and essential oil of Lavandula angustifolia Mill. J. Ethnopharmacol.89, 67–71. 10.1016/S0378-8741(03)00234-4

  • 119

    HelalA. M.NakamuraN.El-AskaryH.HattoriM. (2000). Sesquiterpene lactone glucosides from Sonchus asper. Phytochemistry53, 473–477. 10.1016/S0031-9422(99)00516-6

  • 120

    HosniK.HassenI.SebeiH.CasabiancaH. (2013). Secondary metabolites from Chrysanthemum coronarium (Garland) flowerheads: chemical composition and biological activities. Ind. Crops Prod.44, 263–27110.1016/j.indcrop.2012.11.033

  • 121

    HidayatiS.FrancoF. M.BussmannR. W. (2015). Ready for phase 5-current status of ethnobiology in Southeast Asia. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed.11:17. 10.1186/s13002-015-0005-7

  • 122

    HuangH.LiuY.MengQ.WeiS.CuiH.ZhangC. (2010). Flavonolignans and other phenolic compounds from Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. Biochem. Syst. Ecol.38, 656–658. 10.1016/j.bse.2010.03.013

  • 123

    HussainA. I.AnwarF.ChathaS. A.LatifS.SheraziS. T.AhmadA.et al. (2013). Chemical composition and bioactivity studies of the essential oils from two thymus species from the Pakistani flora. LWT Food Sci. Tech.50, 185–192. 10.1016/j.lwt.2012.06.003

  • 124

    HwangI. S.HoH.HoffmanB. B.ReavenG. M. (1987). Fructose-induced insulin resistance and hypertension in rats. Hypertension10, 512–516. 10.1161/01.HYP.10.5.512

  • 125

    IbrarM.HussainF.SultanA. (2007). Ethnobotanical studies on plant resources of Ranyal hills, District Shangla, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot.39:329.

  • 126

    IdrissiA. I.Fkih-TetouaniS. (2001). Phytochemical study of Mentha longifolia of Morocco. Fitoterapia72, 596–598. 10.1016/S0367-326X(01)00279-9

  • 127

    IsmailM.HussainJ.KhanA. U.KhanA. L.AliL.KhanF. U.et al. (2012). Antibacterial, antifungal, cytotoxic, phytotoxic, insecticidal, and enzyme inhibitory activities of Geranium wallichianum. Evid. Based Compl. Alter. Med. 2012. 10.1155/2012/305906

  • 128

    JafferF. A.WeisslederR. (2005). Molecular imaging in the clinical arena. JAMA293, 855–862. 10.1001/jama.293.7.855

  • 129

    JainN.AlamM. S.KamilM.IlyasM.NiwaM.SakaeA. (1990). Two flavonol glycosides from Chenopodium ambrosioides. Phytochemistry29, 3988–3991. 10.1016/0031-9422(90)85389-W

  • 130

    JainS. K.RaoR. R. (1977). A Handbook of Field and Herbarium Methods. New Delhi: Today and Tomorrow's Printers and Publishers.

  • 131

    JavedS.ShahidA. A.HaiderM. S.UmeeraA.AhmadR.MushtaqS. (2012). Nutritional, phytochemical potential and pharmacological evaluation of Nigella Sativa (Kalonji) and Trachyspermum Ammi (Ajwain). J. Med. Plants Res. 768–775.

  • 132

    JouadH.HalouiM.RhiouaniH.El HilalyJ.EddouksM. (2001). Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used for the treatment of diabetes, cardiac and renal diseases in the North centre region of Morocco (Fez–Boulemane). J. Ethnopharmacol.77, 175–182. 10.1016/S0378-8741(01)00289-6

  • 133

    KamatouG. P.MakungaN. P.RamogolaW. P.ViljoenA. M. (2008). South African Salvia species: a review of biological activities and phytochemistry. J. Ethnopharmacol.119, 664–672. 10.1016/j.jep.2008.06.030

  • 134

    KambojA.SalujaA. K. (2009). Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Kurz.: phytochemical and pharmacological profile: a review. Pharmacogn. Rev.3:364.

  • 135

    KangJ.KangY.JiX.GuoQ.JacquesG.PietrasM.et al. (2016). Wild food plants and fungi used in the mycophilous Tibetan community of Zhagana (Tewo County, Gansu, China). J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 12: 21. 10.1186/s13002-016-0094-y

  • 136

    KarimiE.OskoueianE.HendraR.OskoueianA.JaafarH. Z. (2012). Phenolic compounds characterization and biological activities of Citrus aurantium bloom. Molecules17, 1203–1218. 10.3390/molecules17021203

  • 137

    KaurG. J.AroraD. S. (2009). Antibacterial and phytochemical screening of Anethum graveolens, Foeniculum vulgare and Trachyspermum ammi. BMC Complement. Altern. Med.9:30. 10.1186/1472-6882-9-30

  • 138

    KayaniS.AhmadM.SultanaS.Khan ShinwariZ.ZafarM.YaseenG.et al. (2015). Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communities of Alpine and Sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol.164, 186–202. 10.1016/j.jep.2015.02.004

  • 139

    KayaniS.AhmadM.ZafarM.SultanaS.KhanM. P.AshrafM. A.et al. (2014). Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants for respiratory disorders among the inhabitants of Gallies–Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol.156, 47–60. 10.1016/j.jep.2014.08.005

  • 140

    KearneyP. M.WheltonM.ReynoldsK.MuntnerP.WheltonP. K.HeJ. (2005). Global burden of hypertension: analysis of worldwide data. Lancet365, 217–223. 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)70151-3

  • 141

    KhanS. S.KhanA.AhmedA.AhmadV. U.FarooqU.ArshadS.et al. (2010). Two new disulfated triterpenoids from Zygophyllum fabago. Helv. Chim. Acta. 93, 2070–2074. 10.1002/hlca.200900477

  • 142

    KhanM. P.AhmadM.ZafarM.SultanaS.AliM. I.SunH. (2015). Ethnomedicinal uses of edible wild fruits (EWFs) in Swat Valley, Northern Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol.173, 191–203. 10.1016/j.jep.2015.07.029

  • 143

    KimY.GoodnerK. L.ParkJ.-D.ChoiJ.TalcottS. T. (2011). Changes in antioxidant phytochemicals and volatile composition of Camellia sinensis by oxidation during tea fermentation. Food Chem.129, 1331–1342. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.05.012

  • 144

    KrishnadhasL.SanthiR.AnnapuraniS. (2016). Isolation and identification of flavonoid fractions from the leaves of Volkameria inermis and its in-vitro cytotoxic study. Int. J. Pharm. Clin. Res.8, 1648–1653.

  • 145

    KrishnaiahD.DeviT.BonoA.SarbatlyR. (2009). Studies on phytochemical constituents of six Malaysian medicinal plants. J. Med. Plants Res.3, 067–072.

  • 146

    Krolikiewicz-RenimelI.MichelT.DestandauE.ReddyM.Andr,éP.ElfakirC.et al. (2013). Protective effect of a Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. flowers extract against skin inflammation: antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and matrix metalloproteinases inhibitory activities. J. Ethnopharmacol.148, 537–543. 10.1016/j.jep.2013.05.001

  • 147

    KumarD.GuptaN.GhoshR.GaonkarR. H.PalB. C. (2013). α-Glucosidase and α-amylase inhibitory constituent of Carex baccans: bio-assay guided isolation and quantification by validated RP-HPLC–DAD. J. Funct. Foods5, 211–218. 10.1016/j.jff.2012.10.007

  • 148

    KumarM.SheikhM. A.BussmannR. W. (2011). Ethnomedicinal and ecological status of plants in Garhwal Himalaya, India. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed.7:32. 10.1186/1746-4269-7-32

  • 149

    KunwarR. M.BussmannR. W. (2008). Ethnobotany in the nepal himalaya. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed.4:24. 10.1186/1746-4269-4-24

  • 150

    KunwarR. M.NepalB. K.KshhetriH. B.RaiS. K.BussmannR. W. (2006). Ethnomedicine in Himalaya: a case study from Dolpa, Humla, Jumla and Mustang districts of Nepal. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed.2:27. 10.1186/1746-4269-2-27

  • 151

    KunwarR. M.ShresthaK. P.BussmannR. W. (2010). Traditional herbal medicine in Far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed.6:35. 10.1186/1746-4269-6-35

  • 152

    LacazeB. (1996). Stationary clock changes on stationary processes. Signal Process.55, 191–205. 10.1016/S0165-1684(96)00130-2

  • 153

    LadioA.LozadaM.WeigandtM. (2007). Comparison of traditional wild plant knowledge between aboriginal communities inhabiting arid and forest environments in Patagonia, Argentina. J. Arid Environ.69, 695–715. 10.1016/j.jaridenv.2006.11.008

  • 154

    LiJ.HuangD.ChenW.XiZ.ChenC.HuangG.et al. (2013). Two new phenolic glycosides from Gnaphalium affine D. Don and their anti-complementary activity. Molecules18, 7751–7760. 10.3390/molecules18077751

  • 155

    LakshmiT.AnithaR.DurghaK.ManjushaV. (2011). Coping with hypertension using safer herbal medicine–A therapeutic review. Int. J. Drug Dev. Res.3, 1–8.

  • 156

    LamchouriF.BenaliT.BennaniB.ToufikH.HassaniL. I. M.BouachrineB.et al. (2012). Preliminary phytochemical and antimicrobial investigations of extracts of Haloxylon scoparium. J Mater Enviro. Sci. 3, 754–759.

  • 157

    LawesC. M.BennettD. A.FeiginV. L.RodgersA. (2004). Blood pressure and stroke an overview of published reviews. Stroke35, 776–785. 10.1161/01.STR.0000116869.64771.5A

  • 158

    LeontiM.SticherO.HeinrichM. (2003). Antiquity of medicinal plant usage in two Macro-Mayan ethnic groups (Mexico). J. Ethnopharmacol.88, 119–124. 10.1016/S0378-8741(03)00188-0

  • 159

    LeporattiM. L.IvanchevaS. (2003). Preliminary comparative analysis of medicinal plants used in the traditional medicine of Bulgaria and Italy. J. Ethnopharmacol.87, 123–142. 10.1016/S0378-8741(03)00047-3

  • 160

    LevB. (2000). Intangibles: Management, Measurement, and Reporting. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.

  • 161

    LöfflerC.SahmA.WrayV.CzyganF.-C.ProkschP. (1995). Soluble phenolic constituents from Cuscuta reflexa and Cuscuta platyloba. Biochem. Syst. Ecol.23, 121-128.

  • 162

    Lozoya-SaldanaH.GarcíaG. D. L. R. (1996). Electrotherapy and shoot tip culture eliminate potato virus X in potatoes. Am. Potato J.73, 149–154. 10.1007/BF02853073

  • 163

    LuR.ZhangH.TanX.LiB. (2011). Studies on chemical constituents from Bud of Trachycarpus fortunei. Chinese J. Exper. Trad. Med. Formulae7:34.

  • 164

    LuY.FooL. Y. (2000). Flavonoid and phenolic glycosides from Salvia officinalis. Phytochemistry55, 263–267. 10.1016/S0031-9422(00)00309-5

  • 165

    MacíasF. A.MolinilloJ. M.TorresA.VarelaR. M.CastellanoD. (1997). Bioactive flavonoids from Helianthus annuus cultivars. Phytochemistry45, 683–687. 10.1016/S0031-9422(97)00011-3

  • 166

    MachadoD. G.CunhaM. P.NeisV. B.BalenG. O.CollaA.BettioL. E.et al. (2013). Antidepressant-like effects of fractions, essential oil, carnosol and betulinic acid isolated from Rosmarinus officinalis L. Food Chem.136, 999–1005. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.09.028

  • 167

    MahishiP.SrinivasaB. H.ShivannaM. B. (2005). Medicinal plant wealth of local communities in some villages in Shimoga District of Karnataka, India. J. Ethnopharmacol.98, 307–312. 10.1016/j.jep.2005.01.035

  • 168

    MahmoodA.RiffatN.ZabtaK.AqeelM. (2011). Ethnobotanical survey of plants from Neelum, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot.43, 105–110.

  • 169

    MahmoudZ.KassemF.Abdel-SalamN.ZderoC. (1986). Sesquiterpene lactones from Lactuca sativa. Phytochemistry25, 747–748. 10.1016/0031-9422(86)88039-6

  • 170

    MandalM.PaulS.UddinM. R.MondalM. A.MandalS.MandalV. (2016). In vitro antibacterial potential of Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Dis.6, 54–62. 10.1016/S2222-1808(15)60985-9

  • 171

    MangasS.MoyanoE.OsunaL.CusidoR. M.BonfillM.PalazónJ. (2008). Triterpenoid saponin content and the expression level of some related genes in calli of Centella asiatica. Biotechnol. Lett. 30: 1853. 10.1007/s10529-008-9766-6

  • 172

    MansoorG. A. (2001a). Herbs and alternative therapies in the hypertension clinic. Am. J. Hypertens.14, 971–975. 10.1016/S0895-7061(01)02172-0

  • 173

    MansoorG. A. (2001b). Herbs and Alternative Therapies in the Hypertension Clinic. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

  • 174

    MansouriA.EmbarekG.KokkalouE.KefalasP. (2005). Phenolic profile and antioxidant activity of the Algerian ripe date palm fruit (Phoenix dactylifera). Food Chem.89, 411–420.

  • 175

    MartinG. (1995). Ethnobotany: A Conservation Manual. London: Champman and Hall.

  • 176

    Mary HelenP.VargheeseT. A.JjJ. K.AbiramyM.SajinaN.Jaya SreeS. (2012). Phytochemical analysis and anticancer activity of essential oil from Myristica fragrans. Int. J. Curr. Pharm. Rev. Res.2, 188.

  • 177

    MasindeW. R. G. (2014). Phytochemical investigation of zanthoxylum gilletii (rutaceae) for antiplasmodial biomolecules. Nairobi: University of Nairobi.

  • 178

    MatiasE. F. F.AlvesE. F.Do Nascimento SilvaM. K.De Alencar CarvalhoV. R.CoutinhoH. D. M.Da CostaJ. G. M. (2015). The genus Cordia: botanists, ethno, chemical and pharmacological aspects. Rev. Bras. de Farmacognosia25, 542–552. 10.1016/j.bjp.2015.05.012

  • 179

    MarcoJ. A.SanzJ. F.AlbiachR. (1992). A sesquiterpene ester from Lactuca serriola. Phytochemistry31, 2539–2540. 10.1016/0031-9422(92)83321-O

  • 180

    MarkhamK. R.WallaceJ. W.BabutY. N.MurtyV. K.RaoM. G. (1989). 8-C-glucosylscutellarein 6, 7-dimethyl ether and its 2 ″-O-apioside from Abrus precatorius. Phytochemistry28, 299–301. 10.1016/0031-9422(89)85069-1

  • 181

    MerfortI.BuddrusJ.NawwarM.LambertJ. (1992). A triterpene from the bark of Tamarix aphylla. Phytochemistry31, 4031–4032. 10.1016/S0031-9422(00)97580-0

  • 182

    MenaP.García-VigueraC.Navarro-RicoJ.MorenoD. A.BartualJ.SauraD.et al. (2011). Phytochemical characterisation for industrial use of pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) cultivars grown in Spain. J. Sci. Food Agric.91, 1893–1906. 10.1002/jsfa.4411

  • 183

    MeliJ.BenedictaN.ChungagT.MopeJ. G. D.Samuel KingueJ. S. (2009). Perceptions of the etiology and treatment of hypertension among some traditional healers in cameroon. Open Health J.2, 39–43. 10.2174/1874944500902010039

  • 184

    MenichiniF.ConfortiF.RiganoD.FormisanoC.PiozziF.SenatoreF. (2009). Phytochemical composition, anti-inflammatory and antitumour activities of four Teucrium essential oils from Greece. Food Chem.115, 679–686. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.12.067

  • 185

    MenshikovG.KuzovkovA. (1949). Research on the alkaloids of Heliotropium lasiocarpum. J. Gen. Chem. USSR.19:137.

  • 186

    MetwallyA. M.OmarA. A.HarrazF. M.El SohafyS. M. (2010). Phytochemical investigation and antimicrobial activity of Psidium guajava L. leaves. Pharmacogn. Mag.6:212. 10.4103/0973-1296.66939

  • 187

    MichelT.DestandauE.Le FlochG.LucchesiM. E.ElfakirC. (2012). Antimicrobial, antioxidant and phytochemical investigations of sea buckthorn (Hippophaë rhamnoides L.) leaf, stem, root and seed. Food Chem.131, 754–760. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.09.029

  • 188

    MikailH. (2010). Phytochemical screening, elemental analysis and acute toxicity of aqueous extract of Allium sativum L. bulbs in experimental rabbits. J. Med. Plant Res. 4, 322–326.

  • 189

    MohanR.MiddhaA. (2017). Pharmacognostical and pharmacological profile of Crataegus songrica. Int. J. Interdiscipl. Res. Centre3, 54–79.

  • 190

    MojabF.KamalinejadM.GhaderiN.VahidipourH. R. (2010). Phytochemical screening of some species of Iranian plants. Iran. J. Pharmaceut. Res.2, 77–82.

  • 191

    MolaresS.LadioA. (2009). Chemosensory perception and medicinal plants for digestive ailments in a Mapuche community in NW Patagonia, Argentina. J. Ethnopharmacol.123, 397–406. 10.1016/j.jep.2009.03.033

  • 192

    MoustafaA. M.AhmedS. H.NabilZ. I.HusseinA. A.OmranM. A. (2010). Extraction and phytochemical investigation of Calotropis procera: effect of plant extracts on the activity of diverse muscles. Pharm. Biol.48, 1080–1190. 10.3109/13880200903490513

  • 193

    MudnicI.ModunD.BrizicI.VukovicJ.GeneralicI.KatalinicV.et al. (2009). Cardiovascular effects in vitro of aqueous extract of wild strawberry (Fragaria vesca, L.) leaves. Phytomedicine16, 462–469. 10.1016/j.phymed.2008.11.004

  • 194

    MukherjeeP. K.WahileA. (2006). Integrated approaches towards drug development from Ayurveda and other Indian system of medicines. J. Ethnopharmacol.103, 25–35. 10.1016/j.jep.2005.09.024

  • 195

    MustafaA. K.SikkaG.GaziS. K.SteppanJ.JungS. M.BhuniaA. K.et al. (2011). Hydrogen sulfide as endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor sulfhydrates potassium channels. Circ. Res.109, 1259–1268. 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.111.240242

  • 196

    NadembegaP.BoussimJ. I.NikiemaJ. B.PoliF.AntognoniF. (2011). Medicinal plants in baskoure, kourittenga province, Burkina Faso: an ethnobotanical study. J. Ethnopharmacol.133, 378–395. 10.1016/j.jep.2010.10.010

  • 197

    NaranjoT.MaestraB. (1995). The effect of ph mutations on homoeolgous pairing in hybrids of wheat with Triticum longissimum. Theor. Appl. Genet.91, 1265–1270. 10.1007/BF00220939

  • 198

    NascimentoG. G.LocatelliJ.FreitasP. C.SilvaG. L. (2000). Antibacterial activity of plant extracts and phytochemicals on antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Braz. J. Microbiol.31, 247–256. 10.1590/S1517-83822000000400003

  • 199

    NasserA. M. (1983). Leaf alkaloids of Rauwolfia caffra. Phytochemistry22, 2297–2300. 10.1016/S0031-9422(00)80165-X

  • 200

    NawamakiK.KuroyanagiM. (1996). Sesquiterpenoids from Acorus calamus as germination inhibitors. Phytochemistry43, 1175–1182. 10.1016/S0031-9422(96)00401-3

  • 201

    NewmanD. J.CraggG. M. (2007). Natural products as sources of new drugs over the last 25 years. J. Nat. Prod.70, 461–477. 10.1021/np068054v

  • 202

    NuwahaF.MuganziE. (2008). Predictors of use of traditional medicine by patients with sexually transmitted infections in Southwest Uganda. J. Altern. Complement. Med.14, 733–739. 10.1089/acm.2007.7160

  • 203

    OgunkunleA.LadejobiT. A. (2006). Ethnobotanical and phytochemical studies on some species of Senna in Nigeria. Afr. J. Biotechnol.5, 2020–2023.

  • 204

    OluwatoyinS. M.IlleogbulamN. G.JosephA. (2011). Phytochemical and antimicrobial studies on the aerial parts of Heliotropium indicum Linn.

  • 205

    OpieL. H.SeedatY. K. (2005). Hypertension in sub-Saharan African populations. Circulation112, 3562–3568. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.539569

  • 206

    OliveiraI.SousaA.FerreiraI. C.BentoA.EstevinhoL.PereiraJ. A. (2008). Total phenols, antioxidant potential and antimicrobial activity of walnut (Juglans regia L.) green husks. Food Chem. Toxicol.46, 2326–2331. 10.1016/j.fct.2008.03.017

  • 207

    OravA.ArakE.RaalA. (2006). Phytochemical analysis of the essential oil of Achillea millefolium L. from various European Countries. Nat. Prod. Res.20, 1082–1088. 10.1080/14786410500510849

  • 208

    OsamorP. E.OwumiB. E. (2010). Complementary and alternative medicine in the management of hypertension in an urban Nigerian community. BMC Complement. Altern. Med.10:36. 10.1186/1472-6882-10-36

  • 209

    PaesL.MendonçaM.CasasL. (2013). Structural and phytochemical aspect from vegetative part of Costus spicatus (Jacq.) Sw (Costaceae). Revista Brasileira de Plantas Medicinais15, 380–390. 10.1590/S1516-05722013000300011

  • 210

    PandinoG.LombardoS.MauromicaleG.WilliamsonG. (2011). Profile of polyphenols and phenolic acids in bracts and receptacles of globe artichoke (Cynara cardunculus var. scolymus) germplasm. J. Food Composit. Anal.24, 148–153. 10.1016/j.jfca.2010.04.010

  • 211

    ParkS.-H.RyuS.-N.BuY.KimH.SimonJ. E.KimK.-S. (2010). Antioxidant components as potential neuroprotective agents in sesame (Sesamum indicum L.). Food Rev. Int.26, 103–121. 10.1080/87559120903564464

  • 212

    ParveenA.AliZ.FantoukhO.KhanI. (2016). Phytochemical Constituents Of Tinospora Sinensis. Planta Med. 82:PC61. 10.1055/s-0036-1578763

  • 213

    PatelP.VaghasiyaJ.ThakorA.JariwalaJ. (2012). Antihypertensive effect of rhizome part of Acorus calamus on renal artery occlusion induced hypertension in rats. Asian Pacific J. Trop. Dis.2, S6–S10. 10.1016/S2222-1808(12)60114-5

  • 214

    PereiraS. I.FreireC. S.Pascoal NetoC.SilvestreA. J.SilvaA. M. (2005). Chemical composition of the epicuticular wax from the fruits of Eucalyptus globulus. Phytochem. Anal.16, 364–369. 10.1002/pca.859

  • 215

    PieroniA. (2008). Local plant resources in the ethnobotany of Theth, a village in the Northern Albanian Alps. Genet. Resour. Crop Evol.55, 1197–1214. 10.1007/s10722-008-9320-3

  • 216

    PirkleJ. L.SchwartzJ.LandisJ. R.HarlanW. R. (1985). The relationship between blood lead levels and blood pressure and its cardiovascular risk implications. Am. J. Epidemiol.121, 246–258. 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a113995

  • 217

    PoffenbergerM.SinghS. (1992). Forest management partnerships: regenerating India's forests. Unasylva43:46.

  • 218

    PuddeyI. B.BeilinL. J. (2006). Alcohol is bad for blood pressure. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol.33, 847–852. 10.1111/j.1440-1681.2006.04452.x

  • 219

    PundirR. K.JainP.SharmaC. (2010). Antimicrobial activity of ethanolic extracts of Syzygium aromaticum and Allium sativum against food associated bacteria and fungi. Ethnobotanical Leaflets2010:11.

  • 220

    RajanS.ThirunalasundariT.JeevaS. (2011). Anti—enteric bacterial activity and phytochemical analysis of the seed kernel extract of Mangifera indica Linnaeus against Shigella dysenteriae (Shiga, corrig.) Castellani and Chalmers. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Med.4, 294–300. 10.1016/S1995-7645(11)60089-8

  • 221

    RasoolR.GanaiB. A.AkbarS.KamiliA. N.MasoodA. (2010). Phytochemical screening of Prunella vulgaris L.: an important medicinal plant of Kashmir. Pak. J. Phar. Sci. 23, 399–402.

  • 222

    RashidS.AhmadM.ZafarM.SultanaS.AyubM.KhanM. A.et al. (2015). Ethnobotanical survey of medicinally important shrubs and trees of Himalayan region of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol.166, 340–351. 10.1016/j.jep.2015.03.042

  • 223

    RehechoS.Uriarte-PueyoI.CalvoJ.VivasL. A.CalvoM. I. (2011). Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants in Nor-Yauyos, a part of the Landscape Reserve Nor-Yauyos-Cochas, Peru. J. Ethnopharmacol.133, 75–85. 10.1016/j.jep.2010.09.006

  • 224

    RiazT.AbbasiA. M.ShahzadiT.AjaibM.KhanM. K. (2012). Phytochemical screening, free radical scavenging, antioxidant activity and phenolic content of Dodonaea viscosa. J. Serb. Chem. Soc.77, 423–435. 10.2298/JSC110621183R

  • 225

    RogersW. J.MichauxS.BastinM.BucheliP. (1999). Changes to the content of sugars, sugar alcohols, myo-inositol, carboxylic acids and inorganic anions in developing grains from different varieties of Robusta (Coffea canephora) and Arabica (C. arabica) coffees. Plant Sci.149, 115–123. 10.1016/S0168-9452(99)00147-8

  • 226

    RoussosP. A. (2011). Phytochemicals and antioxidant capacity of orange (Citrus sinensis (l.) Osbeck cv. Salustiana) juice produced under organic and integrated farming system in Greece. Sci. Horticult.129, 253–258. 10.1016/j.scienta.2011.03.040

  • 227

    RovestiP. (1936). Therapeutic and dietetic properties of Karkade (Hibiscus sabdariffa) a new colonialpink tea. Farm. Ital. 3, 13–15.

  • 228

    RoyA. (2011). Coping with hypertension using safer herbal medicine-A therapeutic review. Int. J. Drug Dev. Res.3, 1–8.

  • 229

    SadeghiZ.KuhestaniK.AbdollahiV.MahmoodA. (2014). Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous medicinal plants of Saravan region, Baluchistan, Iran. J. Ethnopharmacol.153, 111–118. 10.1016/j.jep.2014.01.007

  • 230

    SahpazS.GarbackiN.TitsM.BailleulF. (2002). Isolation and pharmacological activity of phenylpropanoid esters from Marrubium vulgare. J. Ethnopharmacol.79, 389–392. 10.1016/S0378-8741(01)00415-9

  • 231

    SaiedS.BegumS. (2004). Phytochemical studies of Berberis vulgaris. Chem. Nat. Comp.40, 137–140. 10.1023/B:CONC.0000033929.60336.bb

  • 232

    SahreenS.KhanM. R.KhanR. A. (2011). Phenolic compounds and antioxidant activities of Rumex hastatus D. Don. Leaves. J. Med. Plants Res.5, 2755–2765.

  • 233

    Sahraie-RadM.IzadyariA.RakizadehS.Sharifi-RadJ. (2015). Preparation of strong antidandruff shampoo using medicinal plant extracts: a clinical trial and chronic dandruff treatment. Jundishapur J. Nat. Pharmaceut. Products10, 1–17. 10.17795/jjnpp-21517

  • 234

    SahuM. C.PadhyR. N. (2013). In vitro antibacterial potency of Butea monosperma Lam. against 12 clinically isolated multidrug resistant bacteria. Asian Pacific J. Trop. Dis.3, 217–226. 10.1016/S2222-1808(13)60044-4

  • 235

    SaklaniS.ChandraS.BadoniP.DograS. (2012). Antimicrobial activity, nutritional profile and phytochemical screening of wild edible fruit of Rubus ellipticus. Int. J. Med. Aromatic Plants2, 269–274.

  • 236

    SaleemM.NazirM.AliM. S.HussainH.LeeY. S.RiazN.et al. (2010). Antimicrobial natural products: an update on future antibiotic drug candidates. Nat. Product Rep.27, 238–254. 10.1039/B916096E

  • 237

    SalehiB.KumarN. V. A.SenerB.Sharifi-RadM.KiliçM.MahadyG. B.et al. (2018a). Medicinal plants used in the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus. Int. J. Mol. Sci.19:1459. 10.3390/ijms19051459

  • 238

    SalehiB.MishraA. P.ShuklaI.Sharifi-RadM.ContrerasM. D. M.Segura-CarreteroA.et al. (2018b). Thymol, thyme, and other plant sources: health and potential uses. Phytother. Res.10.1002/ptr.6109

  • 239

    SaludS. D. (2001). Programa Nacional de Salud 2001-2006. México: Secretaría de Salud.

  • 240

    SamuelsenA. B. (2000). The traditional uses, chemical constituents and biological activities of Plantago major L. A review. J. Ethnopharmacol.71, 1–21. 10.1016/S0378-8741(00)00212-9

  • 241

    SamuelssonG. (1958). Phytochemical and pharmacological studies on Viscum album LI Viscotoxin, its isolation and properties. Sven. Farm. Tidskr.62, 169–189.

  • 242

    Sanz-BisetJ.Campos-de-La-CruzJ.Epiquién-RiveraM. A.CañigueralS. (2009). A first survey on the medicinal plants of the Chazuta valley (Peruvian Amazon). J. Ethnopharmacol.122, 333–362. 10.1016/j.jep.2008.12.009

  • 243

    SaqibF.JanbazK. H. (2016). Rationalizing ethnopharmacological uses of Alternanthera sessilis: a folk medicinal plant of Pakistan to manage diarrhea, asthma and hypertension. J. Ethnopharmacol.182, 110–121. 10.1016/j.jep.2016.02.017

  • 244

    SarafidisP. A.LiS.ChenS. C.CollinsA. J.BrownW. W.KlagM. J.et al. (2008). Hypertension awareness, treatment, and control in chronic kidney disease. Am. J. Med.121, 332–340. 10.1016/j.amjmed.2007.11.025

  • 245

    SatyalP.PaudelP.RautJ.DeoA.DosokyN. S.SetzerW. N. (2013). Volatile constituents of Pinus roxburghii from Nepal. Pharmacognosy Res.5:43. 10.4103/0974-8490.105650

  • 246

    SaxenaD. B. (1986). Phenyl indane from Acorus calamus. Phytochemistry25, 553–555. 10.1016/S0031-9422(00)85528-4

  • 247

    SchützK.CarleR.SchieberA. (2006). Taraxacum—a review on its phytochemical and pharmacological profile. J. Eethnopharmacol.107, 313–323. 10.1016/j.jep.2006.07.021

  • 248

    SengulM.YildizH.GungorN.CetinB.EserZ.ErcisliS. (2009). Total phenolic content, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of some medicinal plants. Pak. J. Pharmceut. Sci.22, 102–106.

  • 249

    Sharifi-RadJ.Hoseini-AlfatemiS. M.Sharifi-RadM.SetzerW. N. (2015). Chemical composition, antifungal and antibacterial activities of essential oil from Lallemantia royleana (Benth. in Wall.)Benth. J. Food Safety35, 19–25. 10.1111/jfs.12139

  • 250

    Sharifi-RadM.MnayerD.Morais-BragaM. F. B.CarneiroJ. N. P.BezerraC. F.CoutinhoH. D. M.et al. (2018). Echinacea plants as antioxidant and antibacterial agents: From traditional medicine to biotechnological applications. Phytother. Res.10.1002/ptr.6101. [Epub ahead of print].

  • 251

    Sharifi-RadJ.SalehiB.Stojanović-RadićZ. Z.FokouP. V. T.Sharifi-RadM.MahadyG. B.et al. (2017). Medicinal plants used in the treatment of tuberculosis-Ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological approaches. Biotechnol. Adv.8, 1–18. 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2017.07.001

  • 252

    ShenoyC.PatilM.KumarR.PatilS. (2009). Preliminary phytochemical investigation and wound healing activity of Allium cepa Linn (Liliaceae). Int. J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci.2, 167–175.

  • 253

    SherH.AldosariA.AliA.de BoerH. J. (2014). Economic benefits of high value medicinal plants to Pakistani communities: an analysis of current practice and potential. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed.10:71. 10.1186/1746-4269-10-71

  • 254

    SherH.BussmannR. W.HartR.de BoerH. J. (2016). Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral district, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol.188, 57–69. 10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059

  • 255

    SherZ.KhanZ.HussainF. (2011). Ethnobotanical studies of some plants of Chagharzai valley, district Buner, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot.43, 1445–1452.

  • 256

    ShilS.ChoudhuryM.DasS. (2014). Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants used by the Reang tribe of Tripura state of India. J. Ethnopharmacol.152, 135–141. 10.1016/j.jep.2013.12.037

  • 257

    ShikovA. N.KundracikovaM.PalamaT. L.PozharitskayaO. N.KosmanV. M.MakarovV. G.et al. (2010). Phenolic constituents of Gnaphalium uliginosum L. Phytochem. Lett.3, 45–47. 10.1016/j.phytol.2009.11.002

  • 258

    SiddiquiB. S.GulzarT.MahmoodA.BegumS.KhanB.RasheedM.et al. (2005). Phytochemical studies on the seed extract of Piper nigrum Linn. Nat. Prod. Res.19, 703–712. 10.1080/14786410512331330657

  • 259

    SiddiquiB. S.UsmaniS. B.BegumS.SiddiquiS. (1993). Steroidal alkaloids and an androstane derivative from the bark of Holarrhena pubescens. Phytochemistry33, 925–928. 10.1016/0031-9422(93)85306-C

  • 260

    SinghA. (2008). Phytochemicals of Gentianaceae: a review of pharmacological properties. Int. J. Pharmaceut. Sci. Nanotechnol.1, 33–36.

  • 261

    SinghS. (2012). Phytochemical analysis of different parts of Prosopis juliflora. Int. J. Curr. Pharm. Res.4, 59–61.

  • 262

    SoelbergJ.JägerA. K. (2016). Comparative ethnobotany of the Wakhi agropastoralist and the Kyrgyz nomads of Afghanistan. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed.12:2. 10.1186/s13002-015-0063-x

  • 263

    SolihahM.RosliW. W.NurhananA. (2012). Phytochemicals screening and total phenolic content of Malaysian Zea mays hair extracts. Int. Food Res. J.19, 1533–1538.

  • 264

    SomovaL. I.ShodeF. O.RamnananP.NadarA. (2003). Antihypertensive, antiatherosclerotic and antioxidant activity of triterpenoids isolated from Olea europaea, subspecies africana leaves. J. Ethnopharmacol.84, 299–305. 10.1016/S0378-8741(02)00332-X

  • 265

    SouzaJ. S. N.MachadoL. L.PessoaO. D.Braz-FilhoR.OverkC. R.YaoP.et al. (2005). Pyrrolizidine alkaloids from Heliotropium indicum. J. Braz. Chem. Soc.16, 1410–1414. 10.1590/S0103-50532005000800019

  • 266

    SonibareM. A.SoladoyeM. O.EsanO. O.SonibareO. O. (2009). Phytochemical and antimicrobial studies of four species of Cola Schott and Endl. (Sterculiaceae). Afr. J. Trad. Compl. Alternat. Med.6, 518–525.

  • 267

    SowbhagyaH. (2014). Chemistry, technology, and nutraceutical functions of celery (Apium graveolens L.): an overview. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr.54, 389–398. 10.1080/10408398.2011.586740

  • 268

    SreelathaS.PadmaP. R.UmadeviM. (2009). Protective effects of Coriandrum sativum extracts on carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Food Chem. Toxicol.47, 702–708. 10.1016/j.fct.2008.12.022

  • 269

    StajnerD.PopovićB. M.Canadanović-BrunetJ.AnackovG. (2009). Exploring Equisetum arvense L., Equisetum ramosissimum L. and Equisetum telmateia L. as sources of natural antioxidants. Phytother. Res.23, 546–550. 10.1002/ptr.2682

  • 270

    SteynK.GazianoT. A.BradshawD.LaubscherR.FourieJ. (2001). Hypertension in South African adults: results from the demographic and health survey, 1998. J. Hypertens.19, 1717–1725. 10.1097/00004872-200110000-00004

  • 271

    SukumaranP.NairA. G.ChinmayeeD. M.MiniI.SukumaranS. T. (2012). Phytochemical investigation of Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. and Sheriff.—A nutrient-rich leafy vegetable from Western Ghats of India. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol.167, 1795–1801. 10.1007/s12010-012-9652-5

  • 272

    SumbulS.AhmadM. A.AsifM.AkhtarM. (2011). Myrtus communis Linn. A review. Indian J. Nat. Prod. Resour.2, 395–402.

  • 273

    TabutiJ. R.LyeK. A.DhillionS. S. (2003). Traditional herbal drugs of Bulamogi, Uganda: plants, use and administration. J. Ethnopharmacol.88, 19–44. 10.1016/S0378-8741(03)00161-2

  • 274

    TadhaniM.SubhashR. (2006). Preliminary studies on Stevia rebaudiana leaves: proximal composition, mineral analysis and phytochemical screening. J. Med. Sci.6, 321–326. 10.3923/jms.2006.321.326

  • 275

    TahraouiA.El-HilalyJ.IsrailiZ. H.LyoussiB. (2007). Ethnopharmacological survey of plants used in the traditional treatment of hypertension and diabetes in south-eastern Morocco (Errachidia province). J. Ethnopharmacol.110, 105–117. 10.1016/j.jep.2006.09.011

  • 276

    TanakaH.EtohH.WatanabeN.ShimizuH.AhmadM.RizwaniG. H. (2001). Erysubins C–F, four isoflavonoids from Erythrina suberosa var. glabrescences. Phytochemistry56, 769–773. 10.1016/S0031-9422(00)00441-6

  • 277

    TanR. X.TangH. Q.HuJ.ShuaiB. (1998). Lignans and sesquiterpene lactones from Artemisia sieversiana and Inula racemosa. Phytochemistry49, 157–161. 10.1016/S0031-9422(97)00889-3

  • 278

    TangH. Q.HuJ.YangL.TanR. X. (2000). Terpenoids and flavonoids from Artemisia species. Planta Med.66, 391–393. 10.1055/s-2000-8538

  • 279

    TardíoJ.Pardo-De-SantayanaM. (2008). Cultural importance indices: a comparative analysis based on the useful wild plants of Southern Cantabria (Northern Spain) 1. Econ. Bot.62, 24–39. 10.1007/s12231-007-9004-5

  • 280

    TassellM. C.KingstonR.GilroyD.LehaneM.FureyA. (2010). Hawthorn (Crataegus spp.) in the treatment of cardiovascular disease. Pharmacogn. Rev.4:32. 10.4103/0973-7847.65324

  • 281

    TatiyaA.SuranaS.KhopeS.GokhaleS.SutarM. (2007). Phytochemical investigation and Immunomodulator activity of Amaranthus spinosus Linn. Indian J. Pharm. Educ. Res.41, 337–341.

  • 282

    TeeS. R.TeohX. Y.AimanW.AifulA.HarC. S. Y.TanZ. F.et al. (2010). The prevalence of hypertension and its associated risk factors in two rural communities in Penang, Malaysia. IeJSME2, 27–40.

  • 283

    TeneV.MalagónO.FinziP. V.VidariG.ArmijosC.ZaragozaT. (2007). An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe, Ecuador. J. Ethnopharmacol.111, 63–81. 10.1016/j.jep.2006.10.032

  • 284

    TorranceS. J.WiedhopfR. M.ColeJ. R.AroraS. K.BatesR. B.BeaversW. A.et al. (1976). Antitumor agents from Jatropha macrorhiza (Euphorbiaceae). II. Isolation and characterization of jatrophatrione. J. Org. Chem.41, 1855–1857. 10.1021/jo00872a038

  • 285

    TsaiD. S.ChangY. S.LiT. C.PengW. H. (2014). Prescription pattern of Chinese herbal products for hypertension in Taiwan: a population-based study. J. Ethnopharmacol.155, 1534–1540. 10.1016/j.jep.2014.07.047

  • 286

    UmamaheswariM.ChatterjeeT. (2008). In vitro antioxidant activities of the fractions of Coccinia grandis L. leaf extract. Afr. J. Trad. Compl. Alternat. Med.5, 61–73. 10.4314/ajtcam.v5i1.31258

  • 287

    UniyalS. K.SinghK. N.JamwalP.LalB. (2006). Traditional use of medicinal plants among the tribal communities of Chhota Bhangal, Western Himalaya. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed.2:14. 10.1186/1746-4269-2-14

  • 288

    UsmanH.AbdulrahmanF.LadanA. (2007). Phytochemical and antimicrobial evaluation of Tribulus terrestris L.(Zygophylaceae). Growing in Nigeria. Res. J. Bio. Sci.2, 244–247.

  • 289

    VarshaS.AgrawalR.SonamP. (2013). Phytochemical screening and determination of anti-bacterial and anti-oxidant potential of Glycyrrhiza glabra root extracts. J. Environ. Res. Dev.7, 1552–1558.

  • 290

    VermaA. K.KumarM.BussmannR. W. (2007). Medicinal plants in an urban environment: the medicinal flora of Banares Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed.3:35. 10.1186/1746-4269-3-35

  • 291

    VermaR. K.VermaS. K. (2006). Phytochemical and termiticidal study of Lantana camara var. aculeata leaves. Fitoterapia77, 466–468. 10.1016/j.fitote.2006.05.014

  • 292

    VitaliniS.IritiM.PuricelliC.CiuchiD.SegaleA.FicoG. (2013). Traditional knowledge on medicinal and food plants used in Val San Giacomo (Sondrio, Italy)—An alpine ethnobotanical study. J. Ethnopharmacol.145, 517–529. 10.1016/j.jep.2012.11.024

  • 293

    VoirinB.BayetC.FaureO.JullienF. (1999). Free flavonoid aglycones as markers of parentage in Mentha aquatica, M. citrata, M. spicata and M. x piperita. Phytochemistry50, 1189–1193. 10.1016/S0031-9422(98)00672-4

  • 294

    WangY.XiangL.WangC.TangC.HeX. (2013). Antidiabetic and antioxidant effects and phytochemicals of mulberry fruit (Morus alba L.) polyphenol enhanced extract. PLoS ONE8:e71144. 10.1371/journal.pone.0071144

  • 295

    WangchukP.TobgayT. (2015). Contributions of medicinal plants to the gross national happiness and biodiscovery in Bhutan. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed.11:48. 10.1186/s13002-015-0035-1

  • 296

    World Health Organization (2001). The World Health Report 2001: Mental Health: New Understanding, New Hope. Geneva: World Health Organization.

  • 297

    World Health Organization (2002). WHO Monographs on Selected Medicinal Plants.Geneva: World Health Organization.

  • 298

    YaseenG.AhmadM.SultanaS.Suleiman AlharrasiA.HussainJ.ZafarM. (2015a). Ethnobotany of medicinal plants in the Thar Desert (Sindh) of Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol.163, 43–59. 10.1016/j.jep.2014.12.053

  • 299

    YaseenG.AhmadM.ZafarM.SultanaS.KayaniS.CettoA. A.et al. (2015b). Traditional management of d iabetes in Pakistan: ethnobotanical investigation from traditional health Practitioners. J. Ethnopharmacol.174, 91–117. 10.1016/j.jep.2015.07.041

  • 300

    ZaouiA.CherrahY.AlaouiK.MahassineN.AmarouchH.HassarM. (2002). Effects of Nigella sativa fixed oil on blood homeostasis in rat. J. Ethnopharmacol.79, 23–26. 10.1016/S0378-8741(01)00342-7

Summary

Keywords

hypertension, Northern Pakistan, medicinal plant, disease consensus index, ethnobotany

Citation

Malik K, Ahmad M, Bussmann RW, Tariq A, Ullah R, Alqahtani AS, Shahat AA, Rashid N, Zafar M, Sultana S and Shah SN (2018) Ethnobotany of Anti-hypertensive Plants Used in Northern Pakistan. Front. Pharmacol. 9:789. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2018.00789

Received

09 January 2018

Accepted

28 June 2018

Published

24 July 2018

Volume

9 - 2018

Edited by

Lyndy Joy McGaw, University of Pretoria, South Africa

Reviewed by

Marinella De Leo, Università degli Studi di Pisa, Italy; Javad Sharifi-Rad, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Iran; Andy Wai Kan Yeung, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Updates

Copyright

© 2018 Malik, Ahmad, Bussmann, Tariq, Ullah, Alqahtani, Shahat, Rashid, Zafar, Sultana and Shah.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Khafsa Malik

This article was submitted to Ethnopharmacology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Pharmacology

Disclaimer

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Outline

Figures

Cite article

Copy to clipboard


Export citation file


Share article

Share on WeChat

Scan with WeChat to share this article

Article metrics